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Babylon, Babel
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bab'-i-lon, ba'-bel (confusion; mixture, The
Gate of God)
RELATED: Accad, Babel, Tower of; Belshazzar, Calneh, Captivity, Cyrus, Erech, Nebuchadnezzar, Nimrod, Shinar |
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Easton's Bible Dictionary
The Greek form of BABEL; Semitic form Babilu, meaning
"The Gate of God." In the Assyrian tablets it means "The city of the dispersion
of the tribes." The monumental list of its kings reaches back to B.C. 2300, and
includes Khammurabi, or Amraphel (q.v.), the contemporary of Abraham. It stood
on the Euphrates, about 200 miles above its junction with the Tigris, which flowed
through its midst and divided it into two almost equal parts. The Elamites invaded
Chaldea (i.e., Lower Mesopotamia, or Shinar, and Upper Mesopotamia, or Accad,
now combined into one) and held it in subjection. At length Khammu-rabi delivered
it from the foreign yoke, and founded the new empire of Chaldea (q.v.), making
Babylon the capital of the united kingdom. This city gradually grew in extent
and grandeur, but in process of time it became subject to Assyria. On the fall
of Nineveh (B.C. 606) it threw off the Assyrian yoke, and became the capital of
the growing Babylonian empire. Under Nebuchadnezzar it became one of the most
splendid cities of the ancient world.
After passing through various vicissitudes the city was occupied by Cyrus, "king
of Elam," B.C. 538, who issued a decree permitting the Jews to return to their
own land (Ezra
1). It then ceased to be the capital of an empire. It was again and again
visited by hostile armies, till its inhabitants were all driven from their homes,
and the city became a complete desolation, its very site being forgotten from
among men.
On the west bank of the Euphrates, about 50 miles south of Bagdad, there is found
a series of artificial mounds of vast extent. These are the ruins of this once
famous proud city. These ruins are principally
(1) the great mound called Babil
by the Arabs. This was probably the noted Temple of Belus, which was a pyramid
about 480 feet high.
(2) The Kasr (i.e., "the palace"). This was the great palace of Nebuchadnezzar.
It is almost a square, each side of which is about 700 feet long. The little town
of Hillah, near the site of Babylon, is built almost wholly of bricks taken from
this single mound.
(3) A lofty mound, on the summit of which stands a modern tomb called Amran ibn-Ali.
This is probably the most ancient portion of the remains of the city, and represents
the ruins of the famous hanging-gardens, or perhaps of some royal palace. |
The utter desolation of the city once called "The glory
of kingdoms" (Isaiah13:19)
was foretold by the prophets (Isaiah.13:4
-
22 ; Jeremiah
25:12 ;
50:2 ,
50:3 ; Daniel
2:31 - 38
).
The Babylon mentioned in 1
Peter 5:13 was not Rome, as some have thought, but the literal city of Babylon,
which was inhabited by many Jews at the time Peter wrote.
In Revelation
14:8 ; 16:19
; 17:5
; and 18:2
, "Babylon" is supposed to mean Rome, not considered as pagan, but as the prolongation
of the ancient power in the papal form. Rome, pagan and papal, is regarded as
one power. "The literal Babylon was the beginner and supporter of tyranny and
idolatry...This city and its whole empire were taken by the Persians under Cyrus;
the Persians were subdued by the Macedonians, and the Macedonians by the Romans;
so that Rome succeeded to the power of old Babylon. And it was her method to adopt
the worship of the false deities she had conquered; so that by her own act she
became the heiress and successor of all the Babylonian idolatry, and of all that
was introduced into it by the immediate successors of Babylon, and consequently
of all the idolatry of the earth." Rome, or "mystical Babylon," is "that great
city which reigneth over the kings of the earth" ( Revelation
17:18 ).
Hitchcock's Dictionary of Bible Names
confusion; mixture (same as Babel)
Smith's Bible Dictionary
(confusion) Babylon (Greek form of Babel), is properly
the capital city of the country which is called in Genesis Shinar, and in the
later books Chaldea, or the land of the Chaldeans. The first rise of the Chaldean
power was in the region close upon the Persian Gulf; thence the nation spread
northward up the course of the rivers, and the seat of government moved in the
same direction, being finally fixed at Babylon, perhaps not earlier than B.C,
1700.
I. Topography of Babylon--
Ancient description of the city. --All the ancient writers appear to agree in
the fact of a district of vast size, more or less inhabited having been enclosed
within lofty walls and included under the name of Babylon. With respect to the
exact extent of the circuit they differ. The estimate of Herodotus and of Pliny
is 480 stades (60 Roman miles, 53 of our miles) of Strabo 385, of Q. Curtius 368,
of Clitarchus 365 and of Ctesias 360 stades (40 miles). (George Smith, in his
"Assyrian Discoveries," differs entirely from all these estimates, making the
circuit of the city but eight miles.) Perhaps Herodotus spoke of the outer wall,
which could be traced in his time. Taking the lowest estimate of the extent of
the circuit, we shall have for the space within the rampart an area of above 100
square miles--nearly five times the size of London! It is evident that this vast
space cannot have been entirely covered with houses. The city was situated on
both sides of the river Euphrates, and the two parts were connected together by
a stone bridge five stades (above 1000 yards) long and 30 feet broad. At either
extremity of the bridge was a royal palace, that in the eastern city being the
more magnificent of the two. The two palaces were joined not only by the bridge,
but by a tunnel under the river. The houses, which were frequently three or four
stories high, were laid out in straight streets crossing each other at right angles.
II. Present state of the ruins. --
A portion of the ruins is occupied by the modern town of Hillah. About five miles
above Hillah, on the opposite or left bank of the Euphrates occurs a series of
artificial mounds of enormous size. They consist chiefly of three great masses
of building,--the high pile of unbaked brickwork which is known to the Arabs as
Babel, 600 feet square and 140 feet high; the building denominated the Kasr or
palace, nearly 2000 feet square and 70 feet high, and a lofty mound upon which
stands the modern tomb of Amram-ibn-Alb . Scattered over the country on both sides
of the Euphrates are a number of remarkable mounds, usually standing single, which
are plainly of the same date with the great mass of ruins upon the river bank.
Of these by far the most striking is the vast ruin called the Birs-Nimrud , which
many regard as the tower of Babel, situated about six miles to the southwest of
Hillah. [BABEL,
TOWER OF]
III. Identification of sites. --
The great mound of Babel is probably the ancient temple of Beaus. The mound of
the Kasr marks the site of the great palace of Nebuchadnezzar. The mound of Amram
is thought to represent the "hanging gardens" of Nebuchadnezzar; but most probably
it represents the ancient palace, coeval with Babylon itself, of which Nebuchadnezzar
speaks in his inscriptions as adjoining his own more magnificent residence.
IV. History of Babylon. --
Scripture represents the "beginning of the kingdom" as
belonging to the time of Nimrod. ( Genesis 10:6 - 10 ) The early annals of Babylon
are filled by Berosus, the native historian, with three dynasties: one of 49 Chaldean
kings, who reigned 458 years; another of 9 Arab kings, who reigned 245 years;
and a third of 49 Assyrian monarchs, who held dominion for 526 years. The line
of Babylonian kings becomes exactly known to us from B.C. 747. The "Canon of Ptolemy"
gives us the succession of Babylonian monarchs from B.C. 747 to B.C. 331, when
the last Persian king was dethroned by Alexander. On the fall of Nineveh, B.C.
625, Babylon became not only an independent kingdom, but an empire. The city was
taken by surprise B.C. 539, as Jeremiah had prophesied, ( Jeremiah 51:31 ) by
Cyrus, under Darius, Daniel. 5, as intimated 170 years earlier by Isaiah, ( Isaiah
21:1 - 9 ) and, as Jeremiah had also foreshown, ( Jeremiah 51:39 ) during a festival.
With the conquest of Cyrus commenced the decay of Babylon, which has since been
a quarry from which all the tribes in the vicinity have derived the bricks with
which they have built their cities. The "great city" has thus emphatically "become
heaps." ( Jeremiah 51:37 ) Babel, Tower of. The "tower of Babel" is only mentioned
once in Scripture, ( Genesis 11:4 , 11:5 ) and then as incomplete. It was built
of bricks, and the "slime" used for mortar was probably bitumen. Such authorities
as we possess represent the building as destroyed soon after its erection. When
the Jews, however, were carried captive into Babylonia, they thought they recognized
it in the famous temple of Beaus, the modern Birs Nimrod. But the Birs-Nimrrud
though it cannot be the tower of Babel itself; may well be taken to show the probable
shape and character of the edifice. This building appears to have been a sort
of oblique pyramid built in seven receding stages, each successive one being nearer
to the southwestern end which constituted the back of the building. The first,
second and third stories were each 26 feet high the remaining four being 15 feet
high. On the seventh stage there was probably placed the ark or tabernacle, which
seems to have been again 15 feet high, and must have nearly, if not entirely,
covered the top of the seventh story The entire original height, allowing three
feet for the platform, would thus have been 156 feet, or, without the plat-form,
163 feet.
In the Apocalypse, is the symbolical name by which Rome is denoted. ( Revelation
14:8 ; 17:18 ) The power of Rome was regarded by the later Jews as was that of
Babylon by their forefathers. Comp. ( Jeremiah 51:7 ) with Revelation 14:8 The
occurrence of this name in ( 1 Peter 5:13 ) has given rise to a variety of conjectures,
many giving it the same meaning as in the Apocalypse; others refer it to Babylon
in Asia, and others still to Babylon in Egypt. The most natural supposition of
all is that by Babylon is intended the old Babylon of Assyria, which was largely
inhabited by Jews at the time in question.
International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
ba'-bel, bab'-i-lon (Topographical):
Babylon was the Greek name of the city written in the cuneiform script of the
Babylonians, bab-ili, which means in Semitic, "the gate of god." The Hebrews called
the country, as well as the city, Babhel. This name they considered came from
the' root, balal, "to confound" (Genesis 11:9). The name in Sumerian ideographs
was written Din-tir, which means "life of the forest," and yet ancient etymologists
explained it as meaning "place of the seat of life" (shubat balaTe). Ka-ding'irra,
which also means "gate of god," was another form of the name in Sumerian. It was
also called Su-anna (which is of uncertain meaning) and Uru-azagga, "the holy
city."
Herodotus, the Greek historian, has given us a picture of Babylon in his day.
He says that the city was a great square, 42 miles in circuit. Ctesias makes it
56 miles. This, he writes, was surrounded by a moat or rampart 300 ft. high, and
75 ft. broad. The earliest mention of Babylon is in the time of Sargon I, about
2700 BC. That monarch laid the foundations of the temple of Annnit, and also those
of the temple of Amal. In the time of Dungi we learn that the place was sacked.
The city evidently played a very unimportant part in the political history of
Babylonia of the early period, for besides these references it is almost unknown
until the time of Hammurabi, when its rise brought about a new epoch in the history
of Babylonia. The seat of power was then transferred permanently from the southern
states. This resulted in the closing of the political history of the Sumerians.
The organization of the empire by Hammurabi, with Babylon as its capital, placed
it in a position from which it was never dislodged during the remaining history
of Babylonia.
The mounds covering the ancient city have frequently been explored, but systematic
excavations of the city were not undertaken until 1899, when Koldewey, the German
excavator, began to uncover its ancient ruins in a methodical manner. In spite
of what ancient writers say, certain scholars maintain that they grossly exaggerated
the size of the city, which was comparatively small, especially when considered
in connection with large cities of the present era.
In the northern part of the city there was situated what is called the North Palace
on the east side of the Euphrates, which passed through the city. A little distance
below this point the Arakhtu canal left the Euphrates, and passing through the
southern wall rejoined the river. There was also a Middle and Southern Palace.
Near the latter was located the Ishtar gate. The temple E-makh was close to the
east side of the gate. Other canals in the city were called Merodach and Libilkhegala.
In the southern portion of the city was located the famous temple E-sag-ila. This
temple was called by the Greek historian, "the temple of Belus." Marduk or Merodach
(as written in the Old Testament), the patron deity of the city, received from
Enlil, as Hammurabi informs us, after he had driven the Elamites out of Babylonia,
the title "bel matate," "lord of lands," not the name which Enlil of Nippur had
possessed. In the past there has been a confusion. The idcogram Enlil or Ellil
had been incorrectly read Bel. This necessitated speaking of the old Bel and the
young Bel. Beyond being called bel, "lord," as all other gods were called; Enlil's
name was not Bel. Marduk is the Bel of the Old Testament, as well as the god called
Bel in the Assyrian and Babylonian inscriptions.
The temple area included an outer, central and inner court. The shrine of Ishtar
and Zamama occupied the central court, and the ziggurrat the inner court. In the
temple proper, the shrine Ekua was located, in which stood the golden image of
Marduk. This, the ancient writers say, was 40 ft. high. On the topmost stage there
was a shrine dedicated to Marduk. It is assumed that it was 50 ft. long by 70
ft. broad and 50 ft. in height. Nabopolassar rebuilt the temple and its tower.
Nebuchadrezzar enlarged and embellished the sanctuary. He raised the tower so
that "its head was in the heavens," an expression found in the story of the Tower
of Babel in Genesis, as well as in many of the building inscriptions. See Clay,
LOTB, Babel, 121, and the article on BABEL, TOWER OF. One of the chief works of
Nebuchadrezzar was the building of Aiburshabu, the famous procession street of
the city, which extended from the Ishtar gate to E-sag-ila. It was a great and
magnificent causeway, built higher than the houses. Walls lined it on either side,
which were decorated with glazed tiles, portraying lions, life size in relief.
The pavement was laid with blocks of stone brought from the mountains. This procession
street figured prominently on the New Year's festal day, when the procession of
the gods took place.
A knowledge of the work Nebuchadrezzar did serves as a fitting commentary to the
passage in Daniel 4:30:
"Is not this great Babylon, which I have built?" He had made the city one of the
wonders of the world.
The two sieges by Darius Hystaspes and the one by Xerxes destroyed much of the
beauty of the city. Alexander desired to make it again a great center and to build
an immense fortress in the city; but in the midst of this undertaking he was murdered,
while living in the palace of Nebuchadrezzar. The temple, though frequently destroyed,
was in existence in the time of the Seleucids, but the city had long since ceased
to be of any importance.
See also BABYLONIA.
BABEL, BABYLON (2)
babhel; Assyro-Bab Bab-ili, (Bab-ilani, "gate of god," or "of the gods," rendered
in Sumerian as Ka-dingira, "gate of god," regarded as a folk-etymology):
See BABEL,
TOWER OF
1. Names by Which the City Was Known:
The name of the great capital of ancient Babylonia, the Shinar of Genesis 10:10
; 14:1, other names of the city being Tin- dir, "seat of life," E (ki), probably
an abbreviation of Eridu (ki) "the good city" (=Paradise), Babylonia having seemingly
been regarded as the Garden of Eden (PSBA, June 1911, p. 161); and Su-anna, "the
high-handed" (meaning, apparently, "high- walled," "hand" and "defense" being
interchangeable terms). It is possible that these various names are due to the
incorporation of outlying districts as Babylon grew in size.
2. Probable Date of Its Foundation:
According to Genesis 10:9, the founder of Babylon was Nimrod, but among the Babylonians,
it was Merodach who built the city, together with Erech and Niffer (Calneh) and
their renowned temples. The date of its foundation is unknown, but it certainly
went back to primitive times, and Babylon may even have equaled Niffer in antiquity
(the American explorers of that site have estimated that its lowest strata of
habitations go back to 8,000 years BC). Babylon's late assumption of the position
of capital of the country would therefore be due to its rulers not having attained
power and influence at an earlier period. Having once acquired that position,
however, it retained it to the end, and its great god, Merodach, became the head
of the Babylonian pantheon--partly through the influence of Babylon as capital,
partly because the city was the center of his worship, and the place of the great
Tower of Babel, concerning which many wonderful things were said.
See BABEL, TOWER OF; CONFUSION OF TONGUES.
3. Its Walls and Gates from Herodotus:
According to Herodotus, the city, which lay in a great plain, was square in its
plan and measured 120 furlongs (stadia) each way--480 in all. Each side was therefore
about 14 miles long, making a circuit of nearly 56 miles, and an area of nearly
196 square miles. As the space enclosed is so great, and traces of the walls would
seem to be wanting, these figures may be regarded as open to question. Around
the city, Herodotus says, there was a deep and broad moat full of water, and then
came a wall 50 royal cubits thick and 200 cubits high, pierced by 100 gateways
with brazen gates and lintels. Reckoning the cubit at 18 2/3 inches, this would
mean that Babylon's walls were no less than 311 ft. high; and regarding the royal
cubit as being equal to 21 inches, their thickness would be something like 87
ft. Notwithstanding that Babylon has been the quarry of the neighboring builders
for two millenniums, it is surprising that such extensive masses of brickwork
should have disappeared without leaving at least a few recognizable traces.
4. It Position, Divisions, Streets, and Temple:
The city was built on both sides of the Euphrates, and at the point where the
wall met the river there was a return-wall running along its banks, forming a
rampart. The houses of Babylon were of 3 and 4 stories. The roads which ran through
the city were straight, and apparently intersected each other at right angles,
like the great cities of America. The river-end of each of the streets leading
to the river was guarded by a brazen gate. Within the great outer wall was another,
not much weaker, but enclosing a smaller space. Each division of the city contained
a great building, the one being the king's palace, strongly fortified around,
and the other the temple of Zeus Boles--an erection with brazen gates measuring
two furlongs each way. Within this sacred precinct was a solid tower measuring
a furlong each way, and surmounted by other towers to the number of eight. An
ascent ran around these towers, with a stopping-place about the middle where the
visitor might rest. Upou the topmost tower a large cell was built, wherein was
a couch and a golden table. No image was placed in the cell, and no one passed
the night there, except a woman of the people, chosen by the god. In another cell
below was a golden image of Zeus sitting, his seat and footstool being likewise
of gold, with, near by, a large golden table. The total weight of the precious
metal here was 800 talents. Upon a small golden altar outside the cell young sucklings
only were sacrificed, and upon another (not of gold) full-grown animals were offered.
5. The Works of Semiramis and Nitocris:
The hydraulic works of Babylon are attributed by Herodotus to two queens, Semiramis
and Nitoeris. The former made banks of earth on the plain which were worth seeing,
preventing the river from flooding the plain like a sea. The second, Nitocris,
altered the channel of the river in such a way that it flowed three times in its
course to the village Andericca, and the traveler by water therefore took three
days to pass this spot. She also raised the banks of the river, and dug a great
lake above Babylon. The place which was dug out she made into a swamp, the object
being to retard the course of the river. The many bends and the swamp were on
the shortest route to Media, to prevent the Medes from having dealings with her
kingdom and learning of her affairs. Other works were a bridge across the Euphrates,
and a tomb for herself over the most frequented gate of the city.
Both Herodotus and Ctesias were eyewitnesses of the glory of Babylon, though only
at the period when it had begun to wane. It is exceedingly probable, however,
that their accounts will be superseded in the end, by those of the people who
best knew the city, namely, the inhabitants of Babylon itself.
6. Ctesias' Description--the Palaces and Their Decorated Walls:
According to Ctesias, the circuit of the city was not 480, but. 360 furlongs--the
number of the days in the Babylonian year- -and somewhat under 42 miles. The East
and West districts were joined by a bridge 5 furlongs or 1,080 yards long, and
30 ft. broad. At each end of the bridge was a royal palace, that on the eastern
bank being the more magnificent of the two. This palace was defended by three
walls, the outermost being 60 furlongs or 7 miles in circuit; the second, a circular
wall, 40 furlongs (4 1/2 miles), and the third 20 furlongs (2 1/2 miles). The
height of the middle wall was 300 ft., and that of its towers 420 ft., but this
was exceeded by the height of the inmost wall. Ctesias states that the walls of
the second and third enclosures were of colored brick, showing hunting scenes--the
chase of the leopard and the lion, with male and female figures, which he regarded
as Ninus and Semiramis. The other palace (that on the West bank) was smaller and
less ornate, and was enclosed only by a single wall 30 furlongs (3 1/2 miles)
in circuit. This also had representations of hunting scenes and bronze statues
of Ninus, Semiramis and Jupiter-Belus (Bel-Merodach). Besides the bridge, he states
that there was also a tunnel under the river. He seems to speak of the temple
of Belus (see BABEL, TOWER OF) as being surmounted by three statues--Bel (Bel-Merodach),
40 ft. high, his mother Rhea (Dawkina, the Dauke of Damascius), and Bel-Merodach's
spouse Juno or Beltis (Zer-panitum).
7. The Temple of Belus and the Hanging Gardens:
The celebrated Hanging Gardens he seems to describe as a square of which each
side measured 400 ft., rising in terraces, the topmost of which was planted with
trees of various kinds. If this was the case, it must have resembled a temple-tower
covered with verdure. The Assyrian sculptures, however, indicate something different
(see section 27).
8. Other Descriptions:
With regard to the size of the city as given by other authorities, Pliny copies
Herodotus, and makes its circuit 480 furlongs (Nat. Hist. vi.26); Strabo (xvi.
i. section 5), 385; Q. Curtius (v. i. section 26), 368; Clitarchus (apud Diod.
Sic. ii.7), 365. Though the difference between the highest and the lowest is considerable,
it is only what might be expected from independent estimates, for it is doubtful
whether any of them are based on actual measurements. Diodorus (ii.9, end) states
that but a small part of the enclosure was inhabited in his time (he was a contemporary
of Caesar and Augustus), but the abandonment of the city must then have been practically
completed, and the greater part given over, as he states, to cultivation--even,
perhaps, within the space enclosed by the remains of walls today. It is noteworthy
that Q. Curtius says (v. i. section 27) that as much as nine-tenths consisted,
even during Babylon's most prosperous period, of gardens, parks, paradises, fields
and orchards; and this the later contract-tablets confirm. Though there is no
confirmation of the height of the walls as given by these different authorities,
the name given to the city, Su-anna, "the high walled" (see above), indicated
that it was renowned for the height of its defensive structures.
9. Nebuchadrezzar's Account:
Among the native accounts of the city, that of Nebuchadrezzar is the best and
most instructive. From this record it would seem that there were two principal
defensive structures, Imgur-Enlil and Nemitti-Enlil--"Enlil has been gracious"
and "Enlil's foundation" respectively. The construction of these, which protected
the inner city only, on the eastern and western sides of the Euphrates, he attributes
to his father Nabonidus, as well as the digging of the moat, with the two "strong
walls" on its banks, and the embankment of the Arabtu canal. He had also lined
the Euphrates with quays or embankments--probably the structures to which the
Greek writers refer--but he had not finished the work. Within Babylon itself he
made a roadway from Du-azaga, the place where the fates were declared, to Aa-ibur-sabu,
Babylon's festival-street, which lay by the gate of Beltis or Mah, for the great
New-Year's festival of Merodach and the gods.
10. Nebuchadrezzar's Architectural Work at Babylon:
Nebuchadrezzar, after his accession, completed the two great walls, lined the
ditches with brick, and increased the thickness of the two walls which his father
had built. He also built a wall, traces of which are apparently extant, on the
West side of Babylon (he apparently refers to what may be called the "city," in
contradistinction to "greater Babylon"), and raised the level of Aa-ibur-sabu
from the "holy gate" to the gate of Nana; together with the gateways (in consequence
of the higher level of the pathway) through which it passed. The gates themselves
were constructed of cedar overlaid with copper (bronze), most likely in the same
manner as the gates of Imgur-Bel (Balawat) in Assyria (reign of Shalmaneser II,
circa 850 BC). Probably none of Babylon's gates were of solid bronze, notwithstanding
the statements of Herodotus; but the thresholds were wholly of that metal, stone
being very rare, and perhaps less durable. These gates were guarded by images
of bulls and giant serpents or composite dragons of the same metal. Nebuchadrezzar
also built a wall on the East bank of the river, 4,000 cubits distant, "high like
a mountain," to prevent the approach of an enemy. This wall also had cedar gates
covered with copper. An additional defense made by him was an enormous lake, "like
unto the broad sea to cross," which was kept in by embankments.
11. The Royal Palaces:
The royal palaces next claimed the great king's attention. The palace in which
Nabopolassar had lived, and wherein, in all probability, Nebuchadrezzar had passed
his younger days, had suffered from the floods when the river was high. The foundations
of this extensive edifice, which extended from the wall called Imgur-Enlil to
Libil-hegala, the eastern canal, and from the banks of the Euphrates to Aa-ibur-sabu,
the festival-street, were thoroughly repaired with burnt brick and bitumen, and
the doorways, which had become too low in consequence of the raising of that street,
were raised to a suitable height. He caused the whole to tower aloft, as he has
it, "mountainlike" (suggesting a building more than one story high). The roof
of this palace was built of cedar, and the doors were of the same wood covered
with bronze. Their thresholds, as in other cases, were bronze, and the interior
of the palace was decorated with gold, silver, precious stones and other costly
material.
12. Quick Building:
Four hundred and ninety cubits from Nemitti-Enlil lay, as the king says, the principal
wall, Imgur-Enlil, and in order to guarantee the former against attack, he built
two strong embankments, and an outer wall "like a mountain," with a great building
between which served both as a fortress and a palace, and attached to the old
palace built by his father. According to Nebuchadrezzar's account, which is confirmed
by Berosus (as quoted by Josephus and Eusebius), all this work was completed in
15 days. The decorations were like those of the other palace, and blocks of alabaster,
brought, apparently, from Assyria, strengthened the battlements. Other defenses
surrounded this stronghold.
13. The Temples Restored by Nebuchadrezzar:
Among the temples which Nebuchadrezzar restored or rebuilt may be mentioned E-kua,
the shrine of Merodach within E-sagila (the temple of Belus); the sanctuary called
Du-azaga, the place of fate, where, on every New-Year's festival, on the 8th and
9th of Nisan, "the king of the gods of heaven and earth" was placed, and the future
of the Babylonian monarch and his people declared. Every whit as important as
E-sagila, however, was the restoration of E-temen-an-ki, called "the Tower of
Babylon" (see BABEL, TOWER OF), within the city; and connected, as will be seen
from the plan, with that structure. Among the numerous temples of Babylon which
he rebuilt or restored were E-mah, for the goddess Nin-mah, near the Ishtar-gate;
the white limestone temple for Sin, the Moon-god; E-ditur-kalama, "the house of
the judge of the land," for Samas, the Sun-god; E-sa-tila for Gula, the goddess
of healing; E-hursag-ella, "the house of the holy mountain," etc.
14. The Extent of Nebuchadrezzar's Architectural Work:
The amount of work accomplished by this king, who, when walking on the roof of
his palace, lifted up with pride, exclaimed "Is not this great Babylon, which
I have built?" (Daniel 4:30), was, according to his own records and the Greek
writers, enormous, and the claim he made fully justified. But if he boasts of
the work he did, he is just in attributing much to his father Nabopolassar; though
in connection with this it is to be noted that his ascribing the building of the
walls of Babylon to his father is not to be taken literally in all probability
he only restored them, though he may have added supplementary defenses, as Nebuchadrezzar
himself did.
15. Details Concerning the City from Contract-Tablets:
Besides Nebuchadrezzar's inscriptions, various other texts give details concerning
the topography of Babylon, among them being the contract-tablets, which mention
various districts or quarters of the city, such as Te which is within Babylon;
the city of Sula which is within Babylon; the new city which is within Babylon,
upon the new canal. Within the city were also several Hussetu--perhaps "farms,"
such as Hussetu sa Iddina-Marduk, "Iddina-Marduk's farm," etc. The various gates
are also referred to, such as the gate of Samas, the city-gate of Uras, and the
gate of Zagaga, which seems to have lain in "the province of Babylon," and had
a field in front of it, as had also the gate of Enlil.
16. Details Concerning Babylon from Other Sources:
According to an Assyrian and a Babylonian list of gates, the streets bore names
connected with those of the gates to which they led. Thus, the street of the gate
of Zagaga, one of the gods of war, was called "the street of Zagaga, who expels
his enemies"; that of the gate of Merodach was "the street of Merodach, shepherd
of his land"; while the street of Ishtar's gate was "the street of Ishtar, patron
of her people." The city-gates named after Enlil, Addu (Hadad or Rimmon), Samas
the Sun- god, Sin the Moon-god, etc., had streets similarly indicated. Certain
of the streets of Babylon are also referred to on the contract-tablets, and such
descriptive indications as "the broad street which is at the southern gate of
the temple E-tur- kalama" seem to show that they were not in all cases systematically
named. If the streets of Babylon were really, as Herodotus states, straight, and
arranged at right angles, this was probably outside the walls of the ancient (inner)
city, and most likely due to some wise Babylonian king or ruler. Details of the
streets have been obtained at the point called Merkes (sec. 22) and elsewhere,
and seem to show that the BabyIonians liked the rooms of their houses to be square.
Such streets as slanted were therefore full of rectangles, and must have presented
a quite peculiar appearance.
17. Modern Exploration:
It is this inner city which has most attracted the attention of explorers, both
English and German, and it is on its site that the latter have carried on their
systematic excavations. Indeed, it is probable that the houses of the most numerous
class of the people--artisans, merchants, workmen, etc--lay outside the walls
to which the Babylonian royal inscriptions refer. It may be supposed that the
houses in this district were mainly low buildings of unbaked city (of which, indeed,
portions of the temples and palaces were built), and these would naturally disappear
more easily than if they had been built of baked brick. Even when baked, however,
the brick-built ruins of Babylonia Assyria have a tendency to disappear, owing
to the value which bricks, both baked and unbaked, have for the erection of new
houses in the neighborhood. Concerning the extent of the exterior city much doubt
naturally exists, but it may well have covered the tract attributed to it (see
section 3, above). Nineveh, at the time of its prosperity, also had enormous suburbs
(see NINEVEH).
18. Description of the Ruins--The Eastern Walls:
The ruins of Babylon lie between 80 and 90 kilometers (50 miles or less) from
Bagdad. The first thing seen on approaching them is the broad high ridge of Babil,
which marks the site of the ruins of the Northern Palace. After some time, the
ruins of the ancient walls are reached. They are still several yards high, and
slope down gently to the plain. Starting to the North of Babil, the wall stretches
for about 875 yds. due East, and then runs southwards for another 930 yds., taking
at that point a course to the Southeast for about 2 miles 160 yds. (3,300 meters).
A wide gap occurs here, after which it runs to the Southwest, and is lost in the
open fields at the end of about miles (2 kilometers). "That this is the old citywall,"
says Weissbach, "there can be no doubt, and the name Sur, 'city-wall,' given it
by the Arabs, proves that they have fully recognized its nature." At the northern
end it exists in its original extent, the plain out of which it rises being the
old bed of the Euphrates, which, in the course of the centuries, has become filled
up by the desertsand. At the period of Babylon's glory, the river had a much straighter
course than at present, but it reoccupies its old bed about 600 meters (656 yds.)
South of Babil, leaving it afterward to make a sharp bend to the West. From the
point where the city wall first becomes recognizable on the North to its apparent
southernmost extremity is about 3 miles.
19. The Western Walls:
On the West side of the river the traces of the wall are much less, the two angles,
with the parts adjoining them, being all that is recognizable. Beginning on the
North where the Euphrates has reached its midpoint in its course through the city,
it runs westward about 547 yds. (500 meters) West-Southwest, and then, bending
almost at a right angle South-Southeast, turns East again toward the Euphrates,
but is lost in the plain before reaching the river. The distance of the two angles
from each other is about 1 mile, 208 yds. (1,800 meters), and its distance from
the Euphrates is at most 5/8 of a mile (1 kilometer). The western portion of the
city therefore formed a rectangle with an area of about 1.8 miles, and the eastern
quarter, with the projection on the North, 6 1/4 square miles. According to Fried.
Delitzsch, the size of Babylon was about the same as Munich or Dresden. This,
of course, is an estimate from the extant remains--as has been indicated above,
there was probably a large suburban extension beyond the walls, which would account
for the enormous size attributed to the city by the ancients.
20. The Palaces:
Among the Arabs, the northern ruin is called Babil, though it is only the remains
of a palace. Its present height is 30 meters (98 feet, 5 inches), and its rectangular
outline is still easily recognizable. Its sides face the cardinal points, the
longest being those of the North and South. This building, which measures 100
meters (109 yds.), was well protected by the city wall on the North and East,
the Euphrates protecting it on the West. Continuing to the South, the path at
present leads through orchards and palm-groves, beyond which is a rugged tract
evidently containing the remains of ancient structures, probably of inconsiderable
height. After further palm groves, an enormous ruin is encountered, steep on the
East and South, sloping on the North and West. This is the Gasr (Qasr), also called
Emjellibeh (Mujellibah), "the overturned," identical with the great palace of
Nabopolassar and his son Nebuchadrezzar, referred to so prominently by the latter
king in his records. Its longest side skirts the old Euphrates bed, and measures
300 meters (328 yds.). Its surface is very uneven, projections of 15 meters (over
49 ft.) alternating with deep depressions. On the Northwest side enormous walls
of exceedingly hard yellow brick still tower to a considerable height. South of
this the plain, broken only by a few inconsiderable mounds, extends for a distance
of half a kilometer (5/16 mile), and terminates on the South with another enormous
ruin-mound, called Ishan Amran ibn 'Ali. It measures 600 meters (656 yds.) from
North to South, and 400 (437 yds.) from East to West, its average height being
25 meters (82 ft.). About the middle, and close to each other, are two Moslem
domed tombs, the first called Ibrahim al-Khalil ("Abraham the Friend" (of God)--probably
a late addition to the name of another Abraham than the Patriarch), and the other
Areran ibn 'Ali, from which the ruin receives its modern name.
21. The Site of Babylon's Great Tower:
Near the South termination of the plain on which the village of Jim-jimeh lies,
there is a square depression several yards deep, measuring nearly 100 meters (over
100 yds.) each way. In the middle of this depression, the sides of which do not
quite face the cardinal points, there rises, to a height of about 13 ft., a platform
of sun-dried brick about 60 meters (197 ft.) each way, its sides being parallel
with the outer boundary of the depression. This depression, at present called
Sahan, "the dish," is partly filled with foundation-water. Centered in its southern
side is a rectangular hollowing-out similarly formed, about 50 meters (164 ft.)
long, extending toward the ruin called Areran.
22. The Central and Southern Ruins:
East of the Qasr and Emjellibeh are several mounds bearing the name of Ehmereh,
so called from the principal mound on the Southeast, named Ishan al-Oheimar, "the
red ruin," from the color of its bricks. Close to the Southeast corner of the
Qasr lies the ruin called Merkes, "the central-point," and to the South of that
again is a long and irregularly shaped mound bearing the name of Ishan al-Aswad,
"the black ruin." From this enumeration of the principal remains on the site of
Babylon, it will be easily seen that public buildings in this, the most ancient
quarter of the city, were exceedingly numerous. Indeed, the district was regarded
as being of such importance that the surrounding walls were not thought altogether
sufficient to protect it, so another seemingly isolated rampart, on the East,
was built, running North and South, as an additional protection. The remains on
the western side of the river are insignificant, the changed course of the river
being in all probability responsible for the destruction of at least some of the
buildings.
23. A Walk through Babylon:
There is much work to be done before a really complete reconstruction of the oldest
quarter of Babylon can be attempted; but somc thing may be said about the sights
to be seen when taking a walk through the more interesting portion, which, as
we know from Herodotus' narrative, could be visited by strangers, though it is
possible that permission had to be obtained beforehand. Entering by the Urash-gate,
some distance to the East of the Euphrates, one found oneself in Aa-ibursabu,
the Festival-street, which was a continuation of the royal roadway without the
inner wall, coming from the South. This street ran alongside the Arahtu canal,
on its western bank. After a time, one had the small temple of Ninip on the right
(on the other side of the canal), and E-sagila, the great temple of Belus, on
the left. This celebrated shrine was dedicated to Merodach and other deities associated
with him, notably his spouse Zer-panitum ( = Juno), and Nebo, "the teacher," probably
as the one who inculcated Merodach's faith. The shrine of Merodach therein, which
was called E-kua, is said by Nebuchadrezzar to have been magnificently decorated,
and into the temple itself that king had caused to be brought many costly gifts,
acquired by him in the lands over which he had dominion. Connected with E-sagila
on the Northwest by a causeway and probably a staircase, was the great temple-tower
E-temen-an-ki, which, as is indicated above, is not now represented by a tower,
but by a depression, the bricks having been employed, it is said, to repair the
Hindiyeh canal. This great building was a striking monument of the city, and must
have been visible for a considerable distance, its height being something over
300 ft. The stages of which it was composed are thought to have been colored like
those of the similar tower laid bare by the French excavations at Khorsabad (DurSarru-ukin)
in Assyria. Causeways or streets united this building with Aa-ibur-sabu, the festival-street
along which the traveler is supposed to be proceeding. Continuing to the North,
the visitor crossed a canal at right angles, named Libilhegalli, "may he (the
god) bring fertility," and found himself immediately opposite the royal palace--the
extensive building now known as the Qasr. According to Weissbach, its area occupied
no less than 4 1/2 hectares (rather more than 11 acres) and it was divided, as
we know from the inscriptions of Nebuchadrezzar, into two parts, connected by
a corridor. The building was richly decorated, as the Babylonians understood such
things, the interior walls being lined with enameled brick and other material.
Passing along the eastern side of the palace, the visitor came to the Ishtar-gate--a
massive doorway faced with enameled brick in Nebuchadrezzar's time, and decorated
with colored enameled reliefs of the lion, the bull and the dragon of Babylon.
On the right of this gateway was to be seen the temple of the goddess Nin-mah,
Merodach's spouse--a temple of sun-dried brick with traces of white coloring.
It was a celebrated shrine of the Babylonians, in the usual architectural style
with recessed buttresses, but modest from our modern point of view. Nin-mah was
the goddess of reproduction, who, under the name of Aruru, had aided Merodach
to create mankind, hence the honor in which she was held by the Babylonians.
24. The Ishtar-Gate and the Middle Palace:
The Ishtar-gate was apparently a part of the more ancient fortifications of Babylon,
but which portion of the primitive city it enclosed is doubtful. In the time of
Nebuchadrezzar it pierced the continuation, as it were, of the wall on the western
bank of the river. Passing through this gateway, the visitor saw, on the West,
the "middle-palace," an enormous structure, built by Nebuchadrezzar, as he boasts,
in 15 days--a statement which seems somewhat of an exaggeration, when we come
to consider the massiveness of the walls, some of which have a thickness of several
yards. He describes this as having been "a fortress" (duru), "mountainlike" (sadanis),
and on its summit he built an abode for himself--a "great palace," which was joined
with his father's palace on the South of the intervening wall. It is possibly
this latter which was built in 15 days- -not the whole structure, including the
fortress. It was raised "high as the forests," and decorated with cedar and all
kinds of costly woods, its doors being of palm, cedar, cypress, ebony(?) and ivory,
framed in silver and gold, and plated with copper. The thresholds and hinges of
its gates were bronze, and the cornice round its top was in (an imitation of)
lapis-lazuli. It was a house for men to admire; and it is not improbable that
this was the palace upon which he was regarded as having been walking when he
referred to "great Babylon," which he had built.
25. The Festival-Street:
But the street Aa-ibur-sabu, along which the visitor is conceived to be walking,
was also a highly decorated causeway, fitted for the pathway of the great gods.
Its width varied from 11 to 22 yds., and it was paved with regularly hewn and
fitted natural stones--limestone and a brownish-red stone with white veins--while
its walls were provided with a covering of brick enameled in various colors with
representations of lions, some of them in relief. The inscriptions which it bore
were white on a rich dark-blue ground, also enameled. There were various other
streets in Babylon, but these have still to be identified.
26. The Chamber of the Fates:
At the end of the Procession-street, and at right angle to it, was the Merodach
canal, which communicated directly with the Euphrares. At this point also, and
forming its end-portion, was the Chamber of Fates (Patak simate), where, yearly,
the oracles were asked and declared. In close connection with this was the Temple
of Offerings (Bit nike) or festival-house (Bit akiti). Concerning these places
more information is needed, but it would seem that, before Nebuchadrezzar's time,
the Chamber of Fates was simply decorated with silver--he, however, made it glorious
with pure gold. It is at this point that the Procession-street is at its widest.
The position of the Temple of Offerings is at present uncertain.
27. The Northern Palace and the Gardens:
What may have lain on the other side of the Arabtu-canal, which here made a bend
to the Northwest, and flowed out of the Euphrates somewhat higher up, is uncertain;
but in the extreme North of the city was the palace now represented by the ruin
called Babil. This was likewise built by Nebuchadrezzar, but it may be doubted
whether it was really founded by him. The presence of traces of wells here made
Hormuzd Rassam think that this was probably the site of the Hanging Gardens, but
further exploration is needed to decide the point, though it may be regarded as
not unlikely that this identification is correct. In that case it would represent
the palace shown in the Assyrian saloon at the British Museum--a building apparently
protected by three walls, and adorned with columns resting on the backs of lions
in an attitude of walking. On the adjoining slab is a representation of a small
building--also with columns--on a hill. A figure of a king sculptured on a stele
is seen on the left, with an altar in front of it, showing that divine honors
were paid to him. The hill is thickly wooded with trees which may be olives, poplars,
etc., and on the right is a series of arches on which other trees are planted.
Irrigation channels stretch in a long stream to the left and in shorter streams
to the right. As this belongs to the time of Ashur-bani-apli, about 650 BC, and
refers to that king's operations against his brother Samas-sum-ukin, the king
of Babylon, it is clear that something similar to the Hanging Gardens existed
before the time of Nebuchadrezzar, and therefore, if it was his queen who had
them made, before the time of their reputed founder. This would be the point first
reached by the Assyrian army when advancing to the attack. Such a park as is represented
here with its hills and streams, and thickly planted trees, must have made the
palace in the vicinity the pleasantest, in all probability, in all Babylonia,
and excited the admiration of every one who visited the sights of the city.
28. Historical References to Babylonian Buildings:
The architectural history of the city of Babylon has still to be written, but
something is already known about it, especially its central point of interest,
the great temple E-sagila, wherein Merodach was wor shipped. The 5th year of Sumu-
la-ila was known as that in which the great fortress of Babylon was built; and
his 22nd was that in which a throne of gold and silver was completed and made
for Merodach's supreme abode (paramaha). Later on Abil-Sin, in his 17th year,
made a throne(?) for Samash of Babylon; and Hammu-rabi, in his 3rd, 12th and 14th
years, also made thrones for the gods--Nannar of Babylon (the Moon-god), Zer-panitum,
Merodach's consort, and Ishtar of Babylon. Samsuiluna, his son, in his 6th year,
placed a "praying statue" in E-sagila before Merodach, followed, in his 8th, by
the dedication of some bright-shining object (mace?) of gold and silver, to the
god; and on that occasion it is stated that he made E-sagila to shine like the
stars of heaven. Passing over many other references to kings who adorned the temples
of the city, the work done there by Agukakrime (circa 1480 BC) may be mentioned.
This ruler, who belonged to the Kassite dynasty, not only brought back the images
of Merodach and Zer-panitum to their temple, but also restored the building and
its shrine, and made rich offerings thereto. Later on, after the destruction of
the city by Sennacherib, his son Esarhaddon, and his grandsons Samas-sum-ukin,
king of Babylon, and Ashurbani-apli, king of Assyria, all took part in the restoration
of Babylon's temples and palaces. The work of Nabopolassar and Nebuchadrezzar
has already been referred to. In 330 BC (reign of Alexander the Great), an attempt
was made, by the tithes of the pious, to clear away the rubbish around E-sangil
(E-sagila), but to all appearance no real restorations were made--or, at least,
the stage at which they could have been put in hand was not reached. In the year
269 BC Antiochus Soter claims, like Nebuchedrezzar and other Babylonian kings,
to have restored the temples E-sagila and E-zida (the latter at Borsippa). Though
in late times the temples were more or less dilapidated, the services to all appearance
continued to be performed, and may even have gone on until well in the Christian
era, Babylonian religion and philosophy being still held in honor as late as the
4th century. The downfall of Babylon as a city began with the founding of Seleucia
on the Tigris, in the reign of Seleucus Nicator (after 312 BC). The inhabitants
of Babylon soon began to migrate to this new site, and the ruined houses and walls
of the old capital ultimately became the haunts of robbers and outlaws. It is
said that the walls were demolished by later (Seleucid) kings on that account,
and it is not improbable that, with the walls, any houses which may have remained
habitable were cleared away. Fortunately, the palaces restored by Nebuchadrezzar
were too firmly built to be easily demolished, hence their preservation to the
present day.
LITERATURE.
Fried. Delitzsch, Babel and Bible. 1903; French H. Weissbach, Das Stadtbild von
Babylon, 1904; R. Koldeway, Die Tempel von Babylon und Borsippa. 1911.
T. G. Pinches
Tags:
babel, babhel, babilu, babylon,
bible commentary, bible history, bible reference, bible study, chaldea, city, gate of god, hillah, ishtar-gate, nebuchadnezzar, nimrod, shinar, the kasr, tower of babel
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