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Easton's Bible Dictionary
A contract or agreement between two parties. In the Old
Testament the Hebrew word berith is always thus translated. Berith is derived
from a root which means "to cut," and hence a covenant is a "cutting," with reference
to the cutting or dividing of animals into two parts, and the contracting parties
passing between them, in making a covenant ( Genesis
15 ; Jeremiah
34:18 ,
34:19 ).
The corresponding word in the New Testament Greek is diatheke , which is, however,
rendered "testament" generally in the Authorized Version. It ought to be rendered,
just as the word berith of the Old Testament, "covenant."
This word is used
(1) of a covenant or compact between
man and man ( Genesis
21:32 ), or between tribes or nations ( 1
Samuel 11:1 ; Joshua
9:6 ,
9:15 ). In entering into a convenant, Jehovah was solemnly called on to witness
the transaction ( Genesis
31:50 ), and hence it was called a "covenant of the Lord" ( 1
Samuel 20:8 ). The marriage compact is called "the covenant of God" ( Proverbs
2:17 ), because the marriage was made in God's name. Wicked men are spoken
of as acting as if they had made a "covenant with death" not to destroy them,
or with hell not to devour them ( Isaiah
28:15 ,
28:18 ).
(2) The word is used with reference to God's revelation of himself in the way
of promise or of favour to men. Thus God's promise to Noah after the Flood is
called a covenant ( Genesis
9 ; Jeremiah
33:20 , "my covenant"). We have an account of God's covernant with Abraham
( Genesis
17 , Compare Leviticus
26:42 ), of the covenant of the priesthood ( Numbers
25:12 ,
25:13 ; Deuteronomy
33:9 ; Nehemiah
13:29 ), and of the covenant of Sinai ( Exodus
34:27 ,
34:28 ; Leviticus
26:15 ), which was afterwards renewed at different times in the history of
Israel ( Deuteronomy
29 ; Joshua
1:24 ; 2
Chronicles 15 ; 23
; 29
; 34
; Ezra
10 ; Nehemiah
9 ). In conformity with human custom, God's covenant is said to be confirmed
with an oath ( Deuteronomy
4:31 ; Psalms
89:3 ), and to be accompanied by a sign ( Genesis
9 ; 17
). Hence the covenant is called God's "counsel," "oath," "promise" ( Psalms
89:3 ,
89:4 ; 105:8
- 11
; Hebrews
6:13 - 20
; Luke
1:68 - 75
). God's covenant consists wholly in the bestowal of blessing ( Isaiah
59:21 ; Jeremiah
31:33 ,
31:34 ).
(3) The term covenant is also used to designate the regular succession of day
and night ( Jeremiah
33:20 ), the Sabbath ( Exodus
31:16 ), circumcision ( Genesis
17:9 ,
17:10 ), and in general any ordinance of God ( Jeremiah
34:13 ,
34:14 ).
(4) A "covenant of salt" signifies an everlasting covenant, in the sealing or
ratifying of which salt, as an emblem of perpetuity, is used ( Numbers
18:19 ; Leviticus
2:13 ; 2
Chronicles 13:5 ). |
COVENANT OF WORKS,
the constitution under which Adam was placed at his creation. In this covenant,
(1) The contracting parties were
(a) God the moral Governor, and
(b) Adam, a free moral agent, and representative of all his natural posterity
( Romans
5:12 - 19
). |
(2) The promise was "life" ( Matthew
19:16 ,
19:17 ; Galatians
3:12 ).
(3) The condition was perfect obedience to the law, the test in this case being
abstaining from eating the fruit of the "tree of knowledge," etc.
(4) The penalty was death ( Genesis
2:16 ,
2:17 ). |
This covenant is also called a covenant of nature,
as made with man in his natural or unfallen state; a covenant of life, because
"life" was the promise attached to obedience; and a legal covenant, because it
demanded perfect obedience to the law.
The "tree of life" was the outward sign and seal of that life which was promised
in the covenant, and hence it is usually called the seal of that covenant.
This covenant is abrogated under the gospel, inasmuch as Christ has fulfilled
all its conditions in behalf of his people, and now offers salvation on the condition
of faith. It is still in force, however, as it rests on the immutable justice
of God, and is binding on all who have not fled to Christ and accepted his righteousness.
CONVENANT OF GRACE,
the eternal plan of redemption entered into by the three
persons of the Godhead, and carried out by them in its several parts. In it the
Father represented the Godhead in its indivisible sovereignty, and the Son his
people as their surety ( John
17:4 , 17:6
, 17:9
; Isaiah
42:6 ; Psalms
89:3 ).
The conditions of this covenant were,
(1) On the part of the Father
(2) On the part of the Son the conditions were
|
Christ, the mediator of, fulfils all its conditions in behalf of his people,
and dispenses to them all its blessings. In Hebrews
8:6 ; 9:15
; 12:24
, this title is given to Christ. (See DISPENSATION .)
Hitchcock's Dictionary of Bible Names
(no entry)
Smith's Bible Dictionary
The Hebrew berith means primarily "a cutting," with reference
to the custom of cutting or dividing animals in two and passing between the parts
in ratifying a covenant. ( Genesis 15 ; Jeremiah 34:18 , 34:19 ) In the New Testament
the corresponding word is diathece (diatheke), which is frequently translated
testament in the Authorized Version. In its biblical meaning two parties the word
is used--
Of a covenant between God and man; e.g. God covenanted with Noah, after the flood,
that a like judgment should not be repeated. It is not precisely like a covenant
between men, but was a promise or agreement by God. The principal covenants are
the covenant of works --God promising to save and bless men on condition of perfect
obedience --and the covenant of grace , or Gods promise to save men on condition
of their believing in Christ and receiving him as their Master and Saviour. The
first is called the Old Covenant, from which we name the first part of the bible
the Old Testament, the Latin rendering of the word covenant. The second is called
the New Covenant, or New Testament.
Covenant between man and man, i.e. a solemn compact or agreement, either between
tribes or nations, ( Joshua 9:6 , 9:15 ; 1 Samuel 11:1 ) or between individuals,
( Genesis 31:44 ) by which each party bound himself to fulfill certain conditions
and was assured of receiving certain advantages. In making such a covenant God
was solemnly invoked as witness, ( Genesis 31:50 ) and an oath was sworn. ( Genesis
21:31 ) A sign or witness of the covenant was sometimes framed, such a gift, (
Genesis 21:30 ) or a pillar or heap of stones erected. ( Genesis 31:52 )
International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
kuv'-e-nant (berith):
I. GENERAL MEANING
The etymological force of the Hebrew berith is not entirely certain. It is probable
that the word is the same as the Assyrian biritu, which has the common meaning
"fetter," but also means "covenant." The significance of the root from which this
Assyrian word is derived is uncertain. It is probable that it is "to bind," but
that is not definitely established. The meaning of biritu as covenant seems to
come directly from the root, rather than as a derived meaning from fetter. If
this root idea is to bind, the covenant is that which binds together the parties.
This, at any rate, is in harmony with the general meaning of the word.
In the Old Testament the word has an ordinary use, when both parties are men,
and a distinctly religious use, between God and men. There can be no doubt that
the religious use has come from the ordinary, in harmony with the general custom
in such cases, and not the reverse. There are also two shades of meaning, somewhat
distinct, of the Hebrew word: one in which it is properly a covenant, i.e. a solemn
mutual agreement, the other in which it is more a command, i.e. instead of an
obligation voluntarily assumed, it is an obligation imposed by a superior upon
an inferior. This latter meaning, however, has clearly been derived from the other.
It is easy to see that an agreement, including as the contracting parties those
of unequal position, might readily include those agreements which tended to partake
of the nature of a command; but the process could not readily be reversed.
II. AMONG MEN
1. Early Idea
We consider first a covenant in which both contracting parties are men. In essence
a covenant is an agreement, but an agreement of a solemn and binding force. The
early Semitic idea of a covenant was doubtless that which prevailed among the
Arabs (see especially W. Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2nd edition,
passim). This was primarily blood-brotherhood, in which two men became brothers
by drinking each other's blood. Ordinarily this meant that one was adopted into
the clan of the other. Hence, this act involved the clan of one of the contracting
parties, and also brought the other party into relation with the god of this clan,
by bringing him into the community life of the clan, which included its god. In
this early idea, then, "primarily the covenant is not a special engagement to
this or that particular effect, but bond of troth and life- fellowship to all
the effects for which kinsmen are permanently bound together" (W. Robertson Smith,
op. cit., 315 f). In this early ceremonial the religious idea was necessarily
present, because the god was kindred to the clan; and the god had a special interest
in the covenant because he especially protects the kindred blood, of which the
stranger thus becomes a part. This religious side always persisted, although the
original idea was much modified. In later usage there were various substitutes
for the drinking of each other's blood, namely, drinking together the sacrificial
blood, sprinkling it upon the parties, eating together the sacrificial meal, etc.;
but the same idea found expression in all, the community of life resulting from
the covenant.
2. Principal Elements
The covenant in the Old Testament shows considerable modification from the early
idea. Yet it will doubtless help in understanding the Old Testament covenant to
keep in mind the early idea and form. Combining statements made in different accounts,
the following seem to be the principal elements in a covenant between men. Some
of the details, it is to be noted, are not explicitly stated in reference to these
covenants, but may be inferred from those between God and men.
(1) A statement of the terms agreed upon (Genesis 26:29
; 31:50 , 52). This was a modification of the earlier idea, which has been noted,
in which a covenant was all-inclusive.
(2) An oath by each party to observe the terms, God being witness of the oath
(Genesis 26:31 ; 31:48 - 53). The oath was such a characteristic feature that
sometimes the term "oath" is used as the equivalent of covenant (see Ezekiel 17:13).
(3) A curse invoked by each one upon himself in case disregard of the agreement.
In a sense this may be considered a part of the oath, adding emphasis to it. This
curse is not explicitly stated in the case of human covenants, but may be inferred
from the covenant with God (Deuteronomy 27:15 - 26).
(4) The formal ratification of the covenant by some solemn external act. The different
ceremonies for this purpose, such as have already been mentioned, are to be regarded
as the later equivalents of the early act of drinking each other's blood. In the
Old Testament accounts it is not certain that such formal act is expressly mentioned
in relation to covenants between men. It seems probable, however, that the sacrificial
meal of Genesis 31:54 included Laban, in which case it was a covenant sacrifice.
In any case, both sacrificial meal and sprinkling of blood upon the two parties,
the altar representing Yahweh, are mentioned in Exodus 24:4 - 8, with allusions
elsewhere, in ratification of the covenant at Sinai between Yahweh and Israel.
In the covenant of God with Abraham is another ceremony, quite certainly with
the same purpose. This is a peculiar observance, namely, the cutting of animals
into two parts and passing between the severed portions (Genesis 15:9 - 18), a
custom also referred to in Jeremiah 34:18. Here it is to be noted that it is a
smoking furnace and a flaming torch, representing God, not Abraham, which passed
between the pieces. Such an act, it would seem, should be shared by both parties,
but in this case it is doubtless to be explained by the fact that the covenant
is principally a promise by Yahweh. He is the one who binds Himself. Concerning
the significance of this act there is difference of opinion. A common view is
that it is in effect a formal expression of the curse, imprecating upon oneself
the same, i.e. cutting in pieces, if one breaks the terms of the covenant. But,
as W. R. Smith has pointed out (op. cit., 481), this does not explain the passing
between the pieces, which is the characteristic feature of the ceremony. It seems
rather to be a symbol that the two parties "were taken within the mystical life
of the victim." (Compare the interpretation of Hebrews 9:15 - 17 in COVENANT,
IN THE NEW TESTAMENT) It would then be an inheritance from the early times, in
which the victim was regarded as kindred with the tribe, and hence, also an equivalent
of the drinking of each other's blood.
The immutability of a covenant is everywhere assumed, at least theoretically.
Other features beyond those mentioned cannot be considered as fundamental. This
is the case with the setting up of a stone, or raising a heap of stones (Genesis
31:45 , 46). This is doubtless simply an ancient custom, which has no direct connection
with the covenant, but comes from the ancient Semitic idea of the sacredness of
single stones or heaps of stones. Striking hands is a general expression of an
agreement made (Ezra 10:19 ; Ezekiel 17:18 , etc.). |
3. Different Varieties
In observing different varieties of agreements among men, we note that they may
be either between individuals or between larger units, such as tribes and nations.
In a great majority of cases, however, they are between the larger units. In some
cases, also, when an individual acts it is in a representative capacity, as the
head of a clan, or as a king. When the covenant is between tribes it is thus a
treaty or alliance. The following passages have this use of covenant: Genesis
14:13 ; 21:27 , 32 ; 26:28 ; 31:44 ; Exodus 23:32 ; 34:12 , 15 ; Deuteronomy 7:2
; Joshua 9:6 , 7 , 11 , 15 , 16 ; Judges 2:2 ; 1 Samuel 11:1 ; 1 Kings 3:12 ;
15:19 parallel 2 Chronicles 16:3 ; 1 Kings 20:34 ; Psalms 83:5 ; Isaiah 33:8 ;
Ezekiel 16:61 ; 17:13 - 19 ; 30:5 ; Daniel 11:22 ; Amos 1:9. In other cases it
is between a king and his subjects, when it is more a command or ordinance, as
2 Samuel 3:12 , 13 , 11 ; 5:3 parallel 1 Chronicles 11:3 ; Jeremiah 34:8 - 18;
Daniel 9:27. In other cases it is between individuals, or between small groups,
where it is an agreement or pledge (2 Kings 11:4 parallel 2 Chronicles 23:1 ;
Job 31:1 ; 41:4 ; Hosea 10:4). Between David and Jonathan it is more specifically
an alliance of friendship (1 Samuel 18:3 ; 20:8 ; 23:18), as also apparently in
Psalms 55:20. It means an alliance of marriage in Malachi 2:14, but probably not
in Proverbs 2:17, where it is better to understand the meaning as being "her covenant
with God."
4. Phraseology Used
In all cases of covenants between men, except Jeremiah 34:10 and Daniel 9:27,
the technical phrase for making a covenant is karath berith, in which karath meant
originally "to cut." Everything indicates that this verb is used with reference
to the formal ceremony of ratification above mentioned, of cutting animals in
pieces. |
III. BETWEEN GOD AND MEN
1. Essential Idea
As already noted, the idea of covenants between God and men doubtless arose from
the idea of covenants between men. Hence, the general thought is similar. It cannot
in this case, however, be an agreement between contracting parties who stand on
an equality, but God, the superior, always takes the initiative. To some extent,
however, varying in different cases, is regarded as a mutual agreement; God with
His commands makes certain promises, and men agree to keep the commands, or, at
any rate, the promises are conditioned on human obedience. In general, the covenant
of God with men is a Divine ordinance, with signs and pledges on God's part, and
with promises for human obedience and penalties for disobedience, which ordinance
is accepted by men. In one passage (Psalms 25:14), it is used in a more general
way of an alliance of friendship between God and man.
2. Covenants Recorded in the Old Testament
A covenant of this general kind is said in the Old Testament to have been made
by God with Noah (Genesis 9:9 - 17 and elsewhere). In this the promise is that
there shall be no more deluge. A covenant is made with Abraham, the thought of
which includes his descendants. In this the promise of God is to multiply the
descendants of Abraham, to give them the land of Canaan, and to make them a blessing
to the nations. This is narrated in Genesis 15:18 ; 17:2 - 21, etc. A covenant
is made with the nation Israel at Sinai (Horeb) (Exodus 19:5 ; 24:7 , 8 ; 34:10
, 27 , 28 , etc.), ratified by a covenant sacrifice and sprinkling of blood (Exodus
24:4 - 8). This constituted the nation the peculiar people of God, and was accompanied
by promises for obedience and penalties for disobedience. This covenant was renewed
on the plains of Moab (Deuteronomy 29:1). In these national covenants the individual
had a place, but only as a member of the nation. The individual might forfeit
his rights under the covenant, however, by deliberate rebellion against Yahweh,
sinning "with a high hand" (Numbers 15:30), and then he was regarded as no longer
a member of the nation, he was "cut off from among his people," i.e. put to death.
This is the teaching of the Priestly Code (P), and is also implied elsewhere;
in the mercy of God, however, the punishment was not always inflicted. A covenant
with the tribe of Levi, by which that became the priestly tribe, is alluded to
in Deuteronomy 33:9 ; Jeremiah 33:21 ; Malachi 2:4. The covenant with Phinehas
(Numbers 25:12 , 13) established an everlasting priesthood in his line. The covenant
with Joshua and Israel (Joshua 24) was an agreement on their part to serve Yahweh
only. The covenant with David (2 Samuel 7 parallel 1 Chronicles 17; see also Psalms
89:3 , 18 , 34 , 39 ; 132:12 ; Jeremiah 33:21) contained a promise that his descendants
should have an everlasting kingdom, and should stand to God in the relation of
sonship. The covenant with Jehoiada and the people (2 Kings 11:17 parallel 2 Chronicles
23:3) was an agreement on their part to be the people of Yahweh. The covenant
with Hezekiah and the people (2 Chronicles 29:10) consisted essentially of an
agreement on their part to reform the worship; the covenant with Josiah and the
people (2 Kings 23:3), of an agreement on their part to obey the Book of the Law.
The covenant with Ezra and the people (Ezra 10:3) was an agreement on their part
to put away foreign wives and obey the law. The prophets also speak of a new covenant,
most explicitly in Jeremiah, but with references elsewhere, which is connected
with the Messianic time (see Isaiah 42:6 ; 49:8 ; 55:3 ; 59:21 ; 61:8 ; Jeremiah
31:31 , 33 ; 32:40 ; 50:5 ; Ezekiel 16:60 , 62 ; 20:37 ; 34:25 ; 37:26 ; Hosea
2:18).
3. Phraseology Used
Various phrases are used of the making of a covenant between God and men. The
verb ordinarily used of making covenants between men, karath, is often used here
as well. The following verbs are also used:
heqim, "to establish" or "confirm"; nathan, "to give"; sim, "to place"; tsiwwah,
"to command"; 'abhar, "to pass over," followed by be, "into"; bo, "to enter,"
followed by be; and the phrase nasa' berith 'al pi, "to take up a covenant upon
the mouth of someone."
4. History of Covenant Idea
The history of the covenant idea in Israel, as between God and man, is not altogether
easy to trace. This applies especially to the great covenants between God and
Israel, namely, the one with Abraham, and the one made at Sinai. The earliest
references to this relation of Israel to Yahweh under the term "covenant" are
in Hosea 6:7 ; 8:1. The interpretation of the former passage is doubtful in details,
but the reference to such a covenant seems clear. The latter is considered by
many a later addition, but largely because of this mention of the covenant. No
other references to such a covenant are made in the prophets before Jeremiah.
Jeremiah and Ezekiel speak of it, and it is implied in Second-Isaiah. It is a
curious fact, however, that most of the later prophets do not use the term, which
suggests that the omission in the earlier prophets is not very significant concerning
a knowledge of the idea in early times.
In this connection it should be noted that there is some variation among the Hexateuchal
codes in their treatment of the covenants. Only one point, however, needs special
mention. The Priestly Code (P) gives no explicit account of the covenant at Sinai,
and puts large emphasis upon the covenant with Abraham. There are, however, apparent
allusions to the Sinaitic covenant (Leviticus 2:13 ; 24:8 ; 26:9 , 15 , 25 , 44
, 45). The facts indicate, therefore, principally a difference of emphasis.
In the light partly of the facts already noted, however, it is held by many that
the covenant idea between God and man is comparatively late. This view is that
there were no covenants with Abraham and at Sinai, but that in Israel's early
conceptions of the relation to Yahweh He was their tribal God, bound by natural
ties, not ethical as the covenant implies. This is a larger question than at first
appears. Really the whole problem of the relation of Israel to Yahweh throughout
Old Testament history is involved, in particular the question at what time a comprehensive
conception of the ethical character of God was developed. The subject will therefore
naturally receive a fuller treatment in other articles. It is perhaps sufficient
here to express the conviction that there was a very considerable conception of
the ethical character of Yahweh in the early history of Israel, and that consequently
there is no sufficient reason for doubting the fact of the covenants with Abraham
and at Sinai. The statement of W. Robertson Smith expresses the essence of the
matter (op. cit., 319):
"That Yahweh's relation is not natural but ethical is the doctrine of the prophets,
and is emphasized, in dependence on their teaching, in the Book of Deuteronomy.
But the passages cited show that the idea had its foundation in pre prophetic
times; and indeed the prophets, though they give it fresh and powerful application,
plainly do not regard the conception as an innovation."
A little further consideration should be given to the new covenant of the prophets.
The general teaching is that the covenant was broken by the sins of the people
which led to the exile. Hence, during the exile the people had been cast off,
the covenant was no longer in force. This is stated, using other terminology,
in Hosea 3:3 ; 1:9 ; 2:2. The prophets speak, however, in anticipation, of the
making of a covenant again after the return from the exile. For the most part,
in the passages already cited, this covenant is spoken of as if it were the old
one renewed. Special emphasis is put, however, upon its being an everlasting covenant,
as the old one did not prove to be, implying that it will not be broken as was
that one. Jeremiah's teaching, however, has a little different emphasis. He speaks
of the old covenant as passed away (Jeremiah 31:32). Accordingly he speaks of
a new covenant (Jeremiah 31:31 , 33). This new covenant in its provisions, however,
is much like the old. But there is a new emphasis upon individuality in approach
to God. In the old covenant, as already noted, it was the nation as a whole that
entered into the relation; here it is the individual, and the law is to be written
upon the individual heart.
In the later usage the specific covenant idea is sometimes less prominent, so
that the term is used practically of the religion as a whole; see Isaiah 56:4
; Psalms 103:18. |
LITERATURE
Valeton, ZATW, XII, XIII (1892-93); Candlish, The Expositor Times, 1892, Oct.,
Nov.; Kraetzschmar, Die Bundesvorstellung im Altes Testament, Marburg, 1896; articles
"Covenant" in Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible (five volumes) and Encyclopedia
Biblica.
George Ricker Berry
Tags:
berith, bible commentary, bible history, bible reference, bible study, covenant, covenant of grace, covenant of works, define, diatheke
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