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Easton's Bible Dictionary
(no entry)
Hitchcock's Dictionary of Bible Names
(no entry)
Smith's Bible Dictionary
(no entry)
International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
sem'-its, sem-it'-ik,
1. Biblical References:
The words "Semites," "Semitic," do not occur in the Bible, but are derived from
the name of Noah's oldest son, Shem (Genesis 5:32 ; 6:10 ; 9:18 , 23 ; 10:1 ,
21 ; 11:10 ; 1 Chronicles 1). Formerly the designation was limited to those who
are mentioned in Genesis 10; 11 as Shem's descendants, most of whom can be traced
historically and geographically; but more recently the title has been expanded
to apply to others who are not specified in the Bible as Semites, and indeed are
plainly called Hamitic, e.g. the Babylonians (Genesis 10:10) and the Phoenicians
and Canaanites (Genesis 10:15 - 19). The grounds for the inclusion of these Biblical
Hamites among the Semites are chiefly linguistic, although political, commercial
and religious affinities are also considered. History and the study of comparative
philology, however, suggest the inadequacy of a linguistic argument.
2. The Five Sons of Shem:
The sons of Shem are given as Elam, Assbur, Arpachshad, Lud and Aram (Genesis
10:22). All except the third have been readily identified, Elam as the historic
nation in the highlands East of the Tigris, between Media and Persia; Asshur as
the Assyrians; Lud as the Lydians of Asia Minor; and Aram as the Syrians both
East and West of the Euphrates. The greatest uncertainty is in the identification
of Arpachshad, the most prolific ancestor of the Semites, especially of those
of Biblical and more recent importance. From him descended the Hebrews and the
Arab tribes, probably also some East African colonies (Genesis 10:24 - 30 ; 11:12
- 26). The form of his name 'arpakhshadh) has given endless trouble to ethnographers.
McCurdy divides into two words, Arpach or Arpath, unidentified, and kesedh, the
singular of kasdim, i.e. the Chaldeans; Schrader also holds to the Chaldean interpretation,
and the Chaldeans themselves traced their descent from Arpachshad (Josephus, Ant,
I, vi, 4); it has been suggested also to interpret as the "border of the Chaldeans"
(BDB; Dillmann, in the place cited.). But the historic, ordinary and most satisfactory
identification is with Arrapachitis, Northeast of Assyria at the headwaters of
the Upper Zab in the Armenian highlands (so Ptolemy, classical geographers, Gesenius,
Delitzsch). Delitzsch calls attention to the Armenian termination shadh (Commentary
on Genesis, in the place cited.).
3. Original Home of the Semites:
If we accept, then, this identification of Arpachshad as the most northeasterly
of the five Semitic families (Genesis 10:22), we are still faced by the problem
of the primitive home and racial origin of the Semites. Various theories of course
have been proposed; fancy and surmise have ranged from Africa to Central Asia.
(1) The most common, almost generally accepted, theory places their beginnings
in Arabia because of the conservative and primitive Semitic of the Arabic language,
the desert characteristics of the various branches of the race, and the historic
movements of Semitic tribes northward and westward from Arabia. But this theory
does not account for some of the most significant facts: e.g. that the Semitic
developments of Arabia are the last, not the first, in time, as must have been
the case if Arabia was the cradle of the race. This theory does not explain the
Semitic origin of the Elamites, except by denial; much less does it account for
the location of Arpachshad still farther north. It is not difficult to understand
a racial movement from the mountains of the Northeast into the lowlands of the
South and West. But how primitive Arabs could have migrated uphill, as it were,
to settle in the Median and Armenian hills is a much more difficult proposition.
(2) We must return to the historic and the more natural location of the ancient
Semitic home on the hillsides and in the fertile valleys of Armenia. Thence the
eldest branch migrated in prehistoric times southward to become historic Elam;
Lud moved westward into Asia Minor; Asshur found his way down the Tigris to become
the sturdy pastoral people of the middle Mesopotamian plateau until the invasion
of the Babylonian colonists and civilization; Aram found a home in Upper Mesopotamia;
while Arpachshad, remaining longer in the original home, gave his name to at least
a part of it. There in the fertile valleys among the high hills the ancient Semites
developed their distinctively tribal life, emphasizing the beauty and close relationship
of Nature, the sacredness of the family, the moral obligation, and faith in a
personal God of whom they thought as a member of the tribe or friend of the family.
The confinement of the mountain valleys is just as adequate an explanation of
the Semitic traits as the isolation of the oasis. So from the purer life of their
highland home, where had been developed the distinctive and virile elements which
were to impress the Semitic faith on the history of mankind, increasing multitudes
of Semites poured over the mountain barriers into the broader levels of the plains.
As their own-mountain springs and torrents sought a way to the sea down the Tigris
and Euphrates beds, so the Semitic tribes followed the same natural ways into
their future homes: Elam, Babylonia, Assyria, Mesopotamia, Arabia, Palestine.
Those who settled Arabia sent further migrations into Africa, as well as rebounding
into the desert west of the Euphrates, Syria and Palestine. Thus Western Asia
became the arena of Semitic life, whose influences also reached Egypt and, through
Phoenicia, the far-away West-Mediterranean. |
4. Confusion with Other Races:
While we may properly call Western and Southwestern Asia the home of the Semitic
peoples, there still remains the difficulty of separating them definitely from
the other races among whom they lived. The historic Babylonians, e.g., were Semites;
yet they dispossessed an earlier non-Semitic people, and were themselves frequently
invaded by other races, such as the Hittites, and even the Egyptians. It is not
certain therefore which gods, customs, laws, etc., of the Babylonians were Semites,
and not adopted from those whom they superseded.
Assyria was racially purely Semitic, but her laws, customs, literature, and many
of her gods were acquired from Babylonia; to such an extent was this true that
we are indebted to the library of the Assyrian Ashurbanipal for much that we know
of Babylonian religion, literature and history. In Syria also the same mixed conditions
prevailed, for through Syria by the fords of the Euphrates lay the highway of
the nations, and Hittite and Mitannian at times shared the land with her, and
left their influence. Possibly in Arabia Semitic blood ran purest, but even in
Arabia there were tribes from other races; and the table of the nations in Ge
divides that land among the descendants of both Ham and Shem (see TABLE OF NATIONS).
Last of all, in Palestine, from the very beginning of its historic period, we
find an intermingling and confusion of races and religions such as no other Semitic
center presents. A Hamitic people gave one of its common names to the country--Canaan,
while the pagan and late-coming Philistine gave the most used name--Palestine.
The archaic remains of Horite, Avite and Hivite are being uncovered by exploration;
these races survived in places, no doubt, long after the Semitic invasion, contributing
their quota to the customs and religious practices of the land. The Hittite also
was in the land, holdling outposts from his northern empire, even in the extreme
south of Palestine. If the blue eyes and fair complexions of the Amorites pictured
on Egyptian monuments are true representations, we may believe that the gigantic
Aryans of the North had their portion also in Palestine.
5. Reliability of Genesis 10:
It is customary now in Biblical ethnology to disregard the classification of Genesis
10, and to group all the nations of Palestine as Semitic, especially the Canaanite
and the Phoenician along with the Hebrew. McCurdy in the Standard BD treats the
various gods and religious customs of Palestine as though they were all Semitic,
although uniformly these are represented in the Old Testament as perversions and
enormities of alien races which the Hebrews were commanded to extirpate. The adoption
of them would be, and was, inimical to their own ancestral faith. Because the
Hebrews took over eventually the language of the Phoenician, appropriated his
art and conveniences, did traffic in his ships, and in Ahab's reign adopted his
Baal and Astarte, we are not warranted at all in rushing to the conclusion that
the Phoenicians represented a primitive Semitic type. Racial identification by
linguistic argument is always precarious, as history clearly shows. One might
as well say that Latin and the gospel were Saxon. There are indications that the
customs and even the early language of the Hebrews were different from those of
the people whom they subdued and dispossessed. Such is the consistent tradition
of their race, the Bible always emphasizing the irreconcilable difference between
their ancestral faith and the practices of the people of Canaan. We may conclude
that the reasons for disregarding the classification of Ge with reference to the
Semites and neighboring races are not final. Out from that fruitful womb of nations,
the Caucasus, the Semites, one branch of the C Caucasian peoples, went southwestward--as
their cousins the Hamites went earlier toward the South and as their younger relatives,
the Aryans, were to go northward and westward--with marked racial traits and a
pronounced religious development, to play a leading part in the life of man.
6. Semitic Languages:
The phrase Semitic Languages is used of a group of languages which have marked
features in common, which also set them off from other languages. But we must
avoid the unnecessary inference that nations using the same or kindred languages
are of the same ancestry. There are other explanations of linguistic affinity
than racial, as the Indians of Mexico may speak Spanish, and the Germans of Milwaukee
may speak English. So also neighboring or intermingled nations may just as naturally
have used branches of the Semitic language stock. However, it is true that the
nations which were truly Semitic used languages which are strikingly akin. These
have been grouped as
(1) Eastern Sere, including Babylonian and Assyrian;
(2) Northern, including Syriac and Aramaic;
(3) Western, including Canaanite, or Phoenician, and Hebrew, and
(4) Southern, including Arabic, Sabean and Ethiopic (compare Geden, Introduction
to the Hebrew Bible, 14-28). |
The distinctive features of this family of languages are
(1) the tri-literal root,
(2) the consonantal writing, vowel indications being unnecessary so long as the
language was spoken,
(3) the meager use of moods and tenses in verbal inflection, every action being
graphically viewed as belonging to one of two stages in time: completed or incomplete,
(4) the paucity of parts of speech, verb and noun covering nearly all the relations
of words,
(5) the frequent use of internal change in the inflection of words, e.g. the doubling
of a consonant or the change of a vowel, and
(6) the use of certain letters, called "serviles," as prefixes or suffixes in
inflection; these are parts of pronouns or the worn-down residua of nouns and
particles. The manner of writing was not uniform in these languages, Babylonian
and Assyrian being ideographic and syllabic, and written from left to right, while
Aramaic, Hebrew and Arabic were alphabetic and written from right to left. |
The primitive forms and inflections of the group are best preserved in the Arabic
by reason of the conservatism of the desert peoples, and in the Assyrian by the
sudden destruction of that empire and the burial of the records of that language
in a comparatively pure state, to be brought back to light by 19th-century exploration.
All the characteristics given above are clearly manifest in the Hebrew of the
Old Testament.
7. Semitic Religion:
In the study of Semitic Religion there are two tendencies toward error:
(1) the Western pragmatical and unsympathetic overtaxing of oriental Nature-symbols
and vividly imaginative speech. Because the Semite used the figure of the rock
(Deuteronomy 32:4 , 18 , 30) in describing God, or poetically conceived of the
storm-cloud as Yahweh's chariot (Psalms 104:3), we must not be led into believing
that his religion was a savage animism, or that Yahweh of Israel was only the
Zeus of the Greeks. How should an imaginative child of Nature speak of the unseen
Spiritual Power, except in the richest analogies of Nature?
(2) The second error is the tendency to treat the accretions acquired by contact
with other nations as of the essence of Semitic religion, e.g. the golden calf
following the Egyptian bondage, and the sexual abominations of the Canaanite Baal
and Astarte. |
The primitive and distinctive beliefs of the Semitic peoples lie still in great
uncertainty because of the long association with other peoples, whose practices
they readily took over, and because of the lack of records of the primitive periods
of Semitic development, their origin and dispersion among the nations being prehistoric.
Our sources of information are the Babylonian and Assyrian tablets and monuments,
the Egyptian inscriptions, Phoenician history, Arabian traditions and inscriptions,
and principally the Old Testament Scriptures. We can never know perhaps how much
the pure Semitism ofBabylonians and Assyrians was diverted and corrupted by the
developed civilization which they invaded and appropriated; Egypt was only indirectly
affected by Semitic life; Semitic development in Arabia was the latest in all
the group, besides which the monuments and reste of Arabian antiquity which have
come down to us are comparatively few; and the Phoenician development was corrupted
by the sensuality of the ancient Canaanitish cults, while the Bible of the Hebrews
emphatically differentiated from the unwholesome religions of Palestine their
own faith, which was ancestral, revealed and pure. Was that Bible faith the primitive
Semitic cult? At least we must take the Hebrew tradition at its face value, finding
in it the prominent features of an ancestral faith, preserved through one branch
of the Semitic group. We are met frequently in these Hebrew records by the claim
that the religion they present is not a new development, nor a thing apart from
the origin of their race, but rather the preservation of an ancient worship, Abraham,
Moses and the prophets appearing not as originators, but reformers, or revivers,
who sought to keep their people true to an inherited religion. Its elemental features
are the following:
(1) Its Peculiar Theism:
It was pronouncedly theistic; not that other religions do not affirm a god; but
theism of the Semites was such as to give their religion a unique place among
all others. To say the least, it had the germ of monotheism or the tendency toward
monotheism, if we have not sufficient evidence to affirm its monotheism, and to
rate the later polytheistic representations of Babylonia and Assyria as local
perversions. If the old view that Semitic religion was essentially monotheistic
be incapable of proof, it is true that the necessary development of their concept
of God must ultimately arrive at monotheism. This came to verification in Abram
the Hebrew, Jesus the Messiah (John 4:21 - 24) and Mohammed the false prophet.
A city-state exclusively, a nation predominantly, worshipped one god, often through
some Nature-symbol, as sun or star or element. With the coming of world-conquest,
intercourse and vision, the one god of the city or the chief god of the nation
became universalized. The ignorant and materialistic Hebrew might localize the
God of Israel in a city or on a hilltop; but to the spiritual mind of Amos or
in the universal vision of Isaiah He was Yahweh, Lord of all the earth.
(2) Personality of God:
Closely related to this high conception of Deity was the apparently contradictory
but really potent idea of the Deity as a personality. The Semite did not grossly
materialize his God as did the savage, nor vainly abstract and etherealize Him
and so eliminate Him from the experience of man as did the Greek; but to him God
universal was also God personal and intimate. The Hebrew ran the risk of conditioning
the spirituality of God in order to maintain His real personality. Possibly this
has been the most potent element in Semitic religion; God was not far from every
one of them. He came into the closest relations as father or friend. He was the
companion of king and priest. The affairs of the nation were under His immediate
care; He went to war with armies, was a partner in harvest rejoicings; the home
was His abode. This conception of Deity carried with it the necessary implication
of revelation (Amos 3:8). The office, message and power of the Hebrew prophet
were also the logical consequence of knowing God as a Person.
(3) Its View of Nature:
Its peculiar view of Nature was another feature of Semitic religion. God was everywhere
and always present in Nature; consequently its symbolism was the natural and ready
expression of His nature and presence. Simile, parable and Nature-marvels cover
the pages and tablets of their records. Unfortunately this poetic conception of
Nature quickly enough afforded a ready path in which wayward feet and carnal minds
might travel toward Nature-worship with all of its formalism and its degrading
excesses. This feature of Semitic religion offers an interesting commentary on
their philosophy. With them the doctrine of Second Causes received no emphasis;
God worked directly in Nature, which became to them therefore the continuous arena
of signs and marvels. The thunder was His voice, the sunshine reflected the light
of His countenance, the winds were His messengers. And so through this imaginative
view of the world the Semite dwelt in an enchanted realm of the miraculous.
(4) The Moral Being of God:
The Semite believed in a God who is a moral being. Such a faith in the nature
of it was certain to influence profoundly their own moral development, making
for them a racial character which has been distinctive and persistent through
the changes of millenniums. By it also they have impressed other nations and religions,
with which they have had contact. The Code of Hammurabi is an expression of the
moral issues of theism. The Law and the Prophets of Israel arose out of the conviction
of God's righteousness and of the moral order of His universe (Exodus 19:5 , 6
; Isaiah 1:16 - 20). The Decalogue is a confession of faith in the unseen God;
the Law of Holiness (Leviticus 17 - 26) is equally a moral code. |
While these elements are not absent altogether from other ancient religions, they
are pronouncedly characteristic of the Semitic to the extent that they have given
to it its permanent form, its large development, and its primacy among the religions
of the human race. To know God, to hear His eternal tread in Nature, to clothe
Him with light as with a garment, to establish His throne in righteousness, to
perceive that holiness is the all-pervading atmosphere of His presence--such convictions
were bound to affect the life and progress of a rate, and to consecrate them as
a nation of priests for all mankind.
LITERATURE.
For discussion of the details of Semitic peoples and religions reference must
be made to the particular articles, such as ARPACHSHAD; EBER; ABRAHAM; HAMMURABI;
ASSYRIA; BABYLONIA; BAAL; ASHTORETH; ASHERITES; MOLOCH; CHEMOSH; CHIUN; ISRAEL,
RELIGION OF etc. The literature on the subject is vast, interesting and far from
conclusive. Few of the Bible Dictionaries have articles on this particular subject;
reference should be made to those in the Standard and in the HDB, volume both
by McCurdy; "Semites" in Catholic Encyclopedia skims the surface; articles in
International Eric are good. In Old Testament Theologies, Davidson, pp. 249-52;
Schultz, chapter iii of volume I; Riehm, Alttestamentliche Theologie; Delitzsch,
Psychology of the Old Testament. For language see Wright's Comparative Grammar
of Semitic Languages. For history and religion: Maspero's three volumes; McCurdy,
HPM; Hommel. Ancient Hebrew Tradition, and Semitic Volker u. Sprache; Jastrow,
Comparative Semitic Religion; Friedr. Delitzsch, Babel u. Bibel; W. R. Smith,
Religion of the Semites.
Edward Mack
Tags:
bible commentary, bible history, bible reference, bible study, define, features of semitic languages, semites, semitic, shem
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