| |
War, Warfare
|
wor
RELATED: |
|
|
|
|
|
Easton's Bible Dictionary
The Israelites had to take possession of the Promised
Land by conquest. They had to engage in a long and bloody war before the Canaanitish
tribes were finally subdued. Except in the case of Jericho and Ai, the war did
not become aggressive till after the death of Joshua. Till then the attack was
always first made by the Canaanites. Now the measure of the iniquity of the Canaanites
was full, and Israel was employed by God to sweep them away from off the face
of the earth. In entering on this new stage of the war, the tribe of Judah, according
to divine direction, took the lead.
In the days of Saul and David the people of Israel engaged in many wars with the
nations around, and after the division of the kingdom into two they often warred
with each other. They had to defend themselves also against the inroads of the
Egyptians, the Assyrians, and the Babylonians. The whole history of Israel from
first to last presents but few periods of peace.
The Christian life is represented as a warfare, and the Christian graces are also
represented under the figure of pieces of armour ( Ephesians
6:11-17
; 1
Thessalonians 5:8 ; 2
Timothy 2:3, 4
). The final blessedness of believers is attained as the fruit of victory ( Revelation
3:21 ).
Hitchcock's Dictionary of Bible Names
(no entry)
Smith's Bible Dictionary
The most important topic in connection with war is the
formation of the army which is destined to carry it on. [ARMY] In ( 1 Kings 9:22
) at a period (Solomons reign) when the organization of the army was complete,
we have apparently a list of the various gradations of rank in the service, as
follows:
"Men of war" = privates ;
"servants," the lowest rank of officers --lieutenants ;
"princes" = captains ;
"captains," perhaps = staff officers ;
"rulers of the chariots and his horsemen" = cavalry officers . |
Formal proclamations of war were not interchanged between the belligerents. Before
entering the enemys district spies were seat to ascertain the character of the
country and the preparations of its inhabitants for resistance. ( Numbers 13:17
; Joshua 2:1 ; Judges 7:10 ; 1 Samuel 26:4 ) The combat assumed the form of a
number of hand-to-hand contests; hence the high value attached to fleetness of
foot and strength of arm. ( 2 Samuel 1:23 ; 2:18 ; 1 Chronicles 12:8 ) At the
same time various strategic devices were practiced, such as the ambuscade, ( Joshua
8:2 , 8:12 ; Judges 20:36 ) surprise, ( Judges 7:16 ) or circumvention. ( 2 Samuel
5:23 ) Another mode of settling the dispute was by the selection of champions,
( 1 Samuel 17 ; 2 Samuel 2:14 ) who were spurred on to exertion by the offer of
high reward. ( 1 Samuel 17:25 ; 18:25 ; 2 Samuel 18:11 ; 1 Chronicles 11:6 ) The
contest having been decided, the conquerors were recalled from the pursuit by
the sound of a trumpet. ( 2 Samuel 2:28 ; 18:16 ; 20:22 ) The siege of a town
or fortress was conducted in the following manner: A line of circumvallation was
drawn round the place, ( Ezekiel 4:2 ; Micah 5:1 ) constructed out of the trees
found in the neighborhood, ( Deuteronomy 20:20 ) together with earth and any other
materials at hand. This line not only cut off the besieged from the surrounding
country, but also served as a base of operations for the besiegers. The next step
was to throw out from this line one or more mounds or "banks" in the direction
of the city, ( 2 Samuel 20:15 ; 2 Kings 19:32 ; Isaiah 37:33 ) which were gradually
increased in height until they were about half as high as the city wall. On this
mound or bank towers were erected, ( 2 Kings 25:1 ; Jeremiah 52:4 ; Ezekiel 4:2
; 17:17 ; 21:22 ; 26:8 ) whence the slingers and archers might attack with effect.
Catapults were prepared for hurling large darts and stones; and the crow , a long
spar, with iron claws at one end and ropes at the other, to pull down stones or
men from the top of the wall. Battering-rams , ( Ezekiel 4:2 ; 21:22 ) were brought
up to the walls by means of the bank, and scaling-ladders might also be placed
on it. The treatment of the conquered was extremely severe in ancient times. The
bodies of the soldiers killed in action were plundered, ( 1 Samuel 31:8 ) 2 Macc
8:27; the survivors were either killed in some savage manner, ( Judges 9:45 ;
2 Samuel 12:31 ; 2 Chronicles 25:12 ) mutilated, ( Judges 9:45 ; 2 Samuel 12:31
; 2 Chronicles 25:12 ) mutilated, ( Judges 1:6 ; 1 Samuel 11:2 ) or carried into
captivity. ( Numbers 31:26 )
International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
wor, wor'-far (milchamah, 'anshe m., "men of war," "soldiers";
polemos, polemein, strateuesthai, stratia):
1. Religious Significance
From an early period of Hebrew history war had a religious
significance. The Hebrews were the people of Yahweh, and they were reminded in
their wars by the priest or priests who accompanied their armies that Yahweh was
with them to fight their battles (Deuteronomy 20:1 - 4). It was customary to open
a campaign, or to enter an engagement, with sacrificial rites (1 Samuel 7:8 -
10 ; 13:9). Hence, in the Prophets, to "prepare" war is to carry out the initiatory
religious rites and therefore to "sanctify" war (Jeremiah 6:4 ; 22:7 ; 51:27 ,
28 ; Micah 3:5 ; Joel 3:9 ; the Revised Version margin in each case); and Isaiah
even speaks of Yahweh mustering His host and summoning to battle His "consecrated
ones" (Isaiah 13:3), the warriors consecrated by the sacrifices offered before
the war actually opened. The religious character attaching to war explains also
the taboo which we find associated with it (Deuteronomy 20:7 ; 23:10 ; 2 Samuel
11:11).
2. Preliminaries
(1) Religious Preliminaries.
It was in keeping with this that the oracle should be consulted before a campaign,
or an engagement (Judges 20:18 ; 1 Samuel 14:37 ; 23:2 ; 28:6 ; 30:8). The ark
of God was believed to be possessed of special virtue in assuring victory, and,
because it was identified in the eyes of the Israelites with the presence of Yahweh,
it was taken into battle (1 Samuel 4:3). The people learned, however, by experience
to put their trust in Yahweh Himself and not in any outward token of His presence.
At the battle of Ebenezer the ark was taken into the fight with disastrous results
to Israel (1 Samuel 4:4). On the other hand at the battle of Michmash, the sacred
ephod at Saul's request accompanied the Israelites into the field, and there was
a great discomfiture of the Philistines (1 Samuel 14:18). In the later history
prophets were appealed to for guidance before a campaign (1 Kings 22:5 ; 2 Kings
3:11), although fanatical members of the order sometimes gave fatal advice, as
to Ahab at Ramoth-gilead, and probably to Josiah at Megiddo. Upon occasion the
king addressed the host before engaging the enemy (2 Chronicles 20:20 - 22, where
Jehoshaphat also had singers to go before the army into battle); and Judas Maccabeus
did so, with prayer to God, on various occasions (1 Macc 3:58 ; 4:30 ; 5:32).
(2) Military Preliminaries.
The call to arms was given by sound of trumpet throughout the land (Judges 3:27
; 6:34 ; 1 Samuel 13:3 ; 2 Samuel 15:10 ; 20:1 ; compare Numbers 10:2). It was
the part of the priests to sound an alarm with the trumpets (2 Chronicles 13:12-16;
compare 1 Macc 4:40 ; 16:8), and the trumpets were to be blown in time of battle
to keep God in remembrance of Israel that they might gain the victory. In the
Prophets, we find the commencement of war described as the drawing of the sword
from its sheath (Ezekiel 21:3), and the uncovering of the shield (Isaiah 22:6).
Graphic pictures of the mobilizing of forces, both for invasion and for defense,
are found in Isaiah 22:6 - 8 and Nahum 3:2 and other Prophets. It was in the springtime
that campaigns were usually opened, or resumed after a cessation of hostilities
in winter (2 Samuel 11:1 ; 1 Kings 20:22 , 26). |
3. Operations of War
Of the actual disposition of troops in battle there are no full accounts till
the Maccabean time, but an examination of the Biblical battlefields by modern
travelers with knowledge of military history has yielded valuable results in showing
the position of the combatants and the progress of the fight (an excellent example
in Dr. William Miller's Least of All Lands, 85, 116, 150, where the battles of
Michmash, Elah and Gilboa are described with plans). With the Israelites the order
of battle was simple. The force was drawn up, either in line, or in three divisions,
a center and two wings. There was a rearguard (called in the King James Version
"rereward," in the Revised Version (British and American) "rearward") to give
protection on the march or to bring in stragglers (Judges 7:16; 1 Samuel 11:11;
2 Samuel 18:2; 1 Macc 5:33; compare also Numbers 10:25; Joshua 6:9; 1 Samuel 29:2;
Isaiah 58:8). The signal for the charge and the retreat was given by sound of
trumpet. There was a battle-cry to inspire courage and to impart confidence (Judges
7:20; Amos 1:14, etc.). The issue of the battle depended upon the personal courage
and endurance of the combatants, fighting man against man, but there were occasions
when the decision was left to single combat, as at the battle of Elah between
the giant Goliath and the stripling David (1 Samuel 17). The combat at Gibeon
between the men of Benjamin, twelve in number, followers of Ish-bosheth, and twelve
of the servants of David, in which each slew his man and all fell together by
mutual slaughter, was the prelude to "a very sore battle" in which Abner and the
men of Israel were beaten before the servants of David (2 Samuel 2:16).
To the minor operations of war belong the raid, such as the Philistines made into
the Valley of Rephaim (1 Chronicles 14:9), the foray, the object of which was
plunder (2 Samuel 3:22), the foraging to secure supplies (2 Samuel 23:11 margin),
and the movements of bands who captured defenseless inhabitants and sold them
as slaves (2 Kings 5:2).
4. Strategy
Of strategical movements in war there was the ambush with liers-in-wait resorted
to by Joshua at Ai (Joshua 8:3); the feint, resorted to by the Israelites against
the tribe of Benjamin (Judges 20:20); the flank movement, adopted by David in
the Valley of Rephaim to rout the Philistines (2 Samuel 5:22); and the surprise,
inflicted successfully at the Waters of Merom upon the Canaanites under Jabin
by Joshua (Joshua 11:1). Of all these the story of Judas Maccabeus, the great
military leader of the Jewish nation, furnishes illustrations (1 Macc 4:5 and
elsewhere).
5. Important Requisites
Among the requisites for the proper conduct of war the most important was the
camp (machaneh). Of the exact configuration of the camp of the Israelites, it
is not possible to speak with certainty. The camp of Israel in the wilderness
seems to have been quadrilateral, although some have supposed it to be round or
triangular (Numbers 2:1). The camp in the wilderness was furnished with ensigns
and standards--the family ensign ('oth), and a standard (deghel) for the group
of tribes occupying each of the four sides. The standard or banner (nec) is used
of the signal for the mustering of troops, but standard-bearer, which occurs only
once in the Bible, is a doubtful reading (Isaiah 10:18, where the Revised Version
margin, "sick man," is rather to be followed). In time of war the camp was surrounded
by a barricade, or wagon-rampart (ma'gal), as at Elah (1 Samuel 17:20); and Saul
lay within such a barricade in the wilderness of Ziph with his people round about
him when David surprised him and carried off his spear (1 Samuel 26:5). Tents
were used for the shelter of troops, at any rate when occupied with a siege (2
Kings 7:7), although at the siege of Rabbah we read of booths for the purpose
(2 Samuel 11:11). Pickets were set to watch the camp, and the watch was changed
three times in the course of the night (Judges 7:19; 1 Macc 12:27). It was usual
to leave a guard in charge of the camp when the force went into action or went
off upon a raid (1 Samuel 25:13; 30:10). Careful prescriptions were laid down
for the preservation of the purity of the camp, "for Yahweh thy God walketh in
the midst of thy camp, .... therefore shall thy camp be holy" (Deuteronomy 23:9-14;
compare Numbers 5:1-4). Garrisons (matstsabh) were placed in occupation of fortresses
and strategical centers (2 Chronicles 17:2). No doubt the caves in the hillsides
and rocky fastnesses of the land, as at Michmash, would serve for their reception
(1 Samuel 13). The garrisons, however, which are expressly mentioned, were for
the most part military posts for the occupation of a subject country--Philistines
in Israelite territory (1 Samuel 13:23; 14:1,11), and Israelites in Syrian and
Edomite territory (2 Samuel 8:6,14).
6. Characteristics
Among the characteristic notes of war, the tumult and the shouting were often
noticed by the sacred historians (1 Samuel 4:6; 14:19; 2 Kings 7:6). In the figurative
language of the prophets the terrors and horrors and devastation of war are set
forth in lurid colors. "The snorting of his horses is heard from Dan," is Jeremiah's
description of an invading army, "at the sound of the neighing of his strong ones
the whole land trembleth" (Jeremiah 8:16). 'The crack of the whip and the noise
of the rumbling wheel and the galloping horse, and the jolting chariot and the
rearing horsemen; and the flash of the sword and the glitter of the spear, and
the multitude of slain; and a mass of dead bodies and no end to the carcasses'
(Nahum 3:2-4: J. M. P. Smith's translation in ICC). Because of the devastation
of territory and the slaughter of men which it entails, the sword is named with
famine and "noisome beasts" (the American Standard Revised Version has "evil beasts")
and "pestilence" as one of God's "four sore judgments" (Ezekiel 14:21, the King
James Version). By a familiar figure "the sword" is often taken for all the operations
of war, because it is characteristic of it to devour and to destroy (2 Samuel
2:26; Jeremiah 2:30).
7. Defeat and Victory
While the treatment of the vanquished in the wars of Israel never reached the
pitch of savagery common in Assyrian warfare, there are not wanting examples of
excessive severity, such as David's treatment of his Moabite prisoners (2 Samuel
8:2) and of the Ammonites captured at Rabbah (2 Samuel 12:31), and Menahem's barbarous
treatment of Tiphsah (2 Kings 15:16; compare Numbers 31:17 ; Joshua 6:21). That
it was common for the Philistines to mutilate and abuse their prisoners is shown
by Saul's determination not to fall into their hands (1 Samuel 31:4). On that
occasion the Philistines not only stripped the slain, but cut off Saul's head
and fixed his body to the wall of Bethshan (1 Samuel 31:9 , 10). It was usual
to carry off prisoners and sell them as slaves (2 Kings 5:2 ; 1 Macc 3:41). The
conquerors were wont to deport the population of the subjugated country (2 Kings
17:6), to carry off treasure and impose tribute (2 Kings 16:8), and even to take
the gods into captivity (Isaiah 46:1). On the other hand, the victors were hailed
with acclamations and songs of rejoicing (1 Samuel 18:6), and victory was celebrated
with public thanksgivings (Exodus 15:1 ; Judges 5:1; 1 Macc 4:24).
The spoils of war, spoken of as booty also--armor, clothing, jewelry, money, captives
and animals--falling to the victors, were divided equally between those who had
taken part in the battle and those who had been left behind in camp (Numbers 31:27
; Joshua 22:8 ; 1 Samuel 30:24).
8. Spoils and Trophies
A proportion of the spoils was reserved for the Levites, and "a tribute unto the
Lord" was also levied before distribution was made of the collected booty (Numbers
31:28 , 30). To the Lord, in the Israelite interpretation of war, the spoils truly
belong, and we see this exemplified at the capture of Jericho when the silver
and the gold and the vessels of brass were put into the treasury of the house
of the Lord (Joshua 6:24). Under the monarchy, part of the spoils fell to the
king who might in turn dedicate it to the Lord or use it for the purposes of war
(2 Kings 14:14 ; 1 Chronicles 18:7 , 11). The armor of the conquered was sometimes
dedicated as a trophy of victory and placed in the temple of the heathen or preserved
near the ark of God (1 Samuel 21:9 ; 31:9).
9. Treaties of Peace
As the blast of the war-horn summoned to war, so it intimated the cessation of
hostilities (2 Samuel 2:28); and as to draw the sword was the token of the entrance
upon a campaign, so to return it to its sheath, or to put it up into the scabbard,
was emblematic of the establishment of peace (Jeremiah 47:6). As ambassadors were
sent to summon to war (Jeremiah 49:14), or to dissuade from war (2 Chronicles
35:21), so ambassadors were employed to negotiate peace (Isaiah 33:7). Treaties
of peace were made on occasion between combatants, as between Ahab and Ben-hadad
II after the defeat of the latter and his fortunate escape from the hands of Ahab
with his life (1 Kings 20:30 , 31). By the appeal of Ben-hadad's representative
to Ahab's clemency his life was spared, and in return therefor he granted to Ahab
the right to have bazaars for trade in Damascus as his father had had in Samaria
(1 Kings 20:34). Alliances, offensive and defensive, were common, as Ahab and
Jehoshaphat against Syria (1 Kings 22:2), Jehoram and Jehoshaphat and the king
of Edom against Moab (2 Kings 3:7), and the kings of the West, including Ahab
and Hadadezer of Damascus, to resist Shalmaneser II of Assyria, who routed the
allies at the battle of Qarqar in 854 BC. It is among the wonderful works of Yahweh
that He makes war to cease to the end of the earth, that He breaks the bow, and
cuts the spear in sunder, and "burneth the chariots in the fire" (Psalms 46:9).
And prophetic pictures of the peace of the latter days include the breaking of
"the bow and the sword and the battle out of the land" (Hosea 2:18), the beating
of "swords into plowshares, and .... spears into pruning-hooks" (Isaiah 2:4; Micah
4:3).
10. War in the New Testament
Among the signs of the last days given by our Lord are
"wars and rumors of wars" (Matthew 24:6 ; Mark 13:7 ; Luke 21:9 ; 21:24). Jesus
accepts war as part of the present world-order, and draws from it an impressive
illustration of the exacting conditions of Christian discipleship (Luke 14:31).
He foresees how Jerusalem is to be encompassed with armies and devoted to the
bitterest extremities of war (Luke 19:41). He conceives Himself come, not to send
peace on earth, but a sword (Matthew 10:34); and declares that they who take the
sword shall perish by the sword (Matthew 26:52). The apostles trace war to the
selfishness and greed of men (James 4:1); they see, speaking figuratively, in
fleshly lusts enemies which war against the soul (1 Peter 2:11); they find in
war apt figures of the spiritual struggle and divine protection and ultimate victory
of the Christian (Romans 7:23 ; 8:37 ; 2 Corinthians 10:3 , 5 ; 1 Timothy 1:18
; Hebrews 13:13 ; 1 Peter 1:5), and of the triumphs of Christ Himself (2 Corinthians
2:14 ; Colossians 2:15 ; Ephesians 2:16 , 17). Paul made the acquaintance of the
barracks, both at Jerusalem and at Caesarea (Acts 21:34 , 37 ; 23:35); and at
Rome his bonds became familiar to the members of the Praetorian guard who were
from time to time detailed to have him in keeping (Philippians 1:13). It is under
the figures of battle and war that John in the Apocalypse conceives the age-long
conflict between righteousness and sin, Christ and Satan, and the final triumph
of the Lamb, who is King of kings, and Lord of lords (Revelation 16:14 - 16 ;
17:14 ; 19:14). For other references see ARMY, 9; PRAETORIAN GUARD; TREATY.
LITERATURE
Benzinger, article "Kriegswesen" in Herzog, Realencyklopadie fur protestantische
Theologie und Kirche(3), XI; Nowack, Hebraische Archaeologie, 72; Browne, Hebrew
Antiquities, 44-47.
T. Nicol
Tags:
bible commentary, bible history, bible reference, bible study, define, war
Comments:
|
 |
|
